Network Working Group D. Thaler Internet-Draft Microsoft Expires: January 14, 2009 July 13, 2008 Evolution of the IP Model draft-thaler-ip-model-evolution-01.txt Status of this Memo By submitting this Internet-Draft, each author represents that any applicable patent or other IPR claims of which he or she is aware have been or will be disclosed, and any of which he or she becomes aware will be disclosed, in accordance with Section 6 of BCP 79. Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), its areas, and its working groups. Note that other groups may also distribute working documents as Internet- Drafts. Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any time. It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference material or to cite them other than as "work in progress." The list of current Internet-Drafts can be accessed at http://www.ietf.org/ietf/1id-abstracts.txt. The list of Internet-Draft Shadow Directories can be accessed at http://www.ietf.org/shadow.html. This Internet-Draft will expire on January 14, 2009. Abstract This draft attempts to document various aspects of the IP service model and how it has evolved over time. In particular, it attempts to document the properties of the IP layer as they are seen by upper- layer protocols and applications, and especially properties which were (and at times still are) incorrectly perceived to exist, as well as properties that changing would cause problems. Thaler Expires January 14, 2009 [Page 1] Internet-Draft Evolution of the IP Model July 2008 Table of Contents 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2. The IP Service Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.1. Links and Subnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3. Common Application Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.1. Assumptions about routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.1.1. Connectivity is symmetric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.1.2. Connectivity is transitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.1.3. Multicast is supported within a link . . . . . . . . . 6 3.1.4. IPv4 broadcast is supported . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3.1.5. Multicast/broadcast is less expensive than replicated unicast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3.1.6. Reordering is rare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3.1.7. Loss is rare and probabilistic, not deterministic . . 8 3.1.8. An end-to-end path exists at a single point in time . 8 3.2. Assumptions about addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3.2.1. Addresses are stable over long periods of time . . . . 8 3.2.2. A non-multicast/broadcast address identifies a single host over a long period of time . . . . . . . . 9 3.2.3. A host has only one address on one interface . . . . . 9 3.3. Assumptions about the relationship between routing and addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 3.3.1. An address used by an application is the same as the address used for routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 3.3.2. A subnet is smaller than a link . . . . . . . . . . . 11 3.3.3. Selecting a local address selects the interface . . . 11 3.3.4. An address is part of an on-link subnet . . . . . . . 11 3.4. Assumptions about upper-layer extensibility . . . . . . . 11 3.4.1. New transport-layer protocols can work across the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3.5. Assumptions about security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3.5.1. Packets are unmodified in transit . . . . . . . . . . 12 3.5.2. Packets are private . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3.5.3. Source addresses are not spoofed . . . . . . . . . . . 12 4. Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 5. Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 6. IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 7. Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 8. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 8.1. Normative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 8.2. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Author's Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Intellectual Property and Copyright Statements . . . . . . . . . . 18 Thaler Expires January 14, 2009 [Page 2] Internet-Draft Evolution of the IP Model July 2008 1. Introduction Since the Internet Protocol was first published as [IEN028] in 1978, IP has provided a network-layer connectivity service to upper-layer protocols and applications. The basic IP service model was documented in the original IEN's (and subsequently the RFC's that obsolete them). However, since the mantra has been "Everything Over IP", the IP service model has evolved significantly over the past 30 years to enable new behaviors that the original definition did not envision. For example, by 1989 there was already some confusion and so [RFC1122] clarified many things and extended the model. In 2004, [RFC3819] gave advice to link-layer protocol designers on a number of things that affect upper layers and is the closest in intent to the subject of this document. Today's IP service model is not well documented in a single place, but is either implicit or discussed piecemeal in many different RFCs. As a result, today's IP service model is actually not well known, or at least is often misunderstood. In the early days of IP, changing or extending the basic IP service model was easier since it was not as widely deployed and there were fewer implementations. Today, the ossification of the Internet makes evolving the IP model even more difficult. Thus it is important to understand the evolution of the IP model for two reasons: 1. To make it clear what upper-layer protocols and applications can and cannot depend on. There are many myths (or at least beliefs which are no longer true) applications may be based on which are problematic. 2. To document lessons for future evolution to take into account. It is important that the service model remain consistent, rather than evolving in two opposing directions. It is sometimes the case in IETF Working Groups today that directions are considered or even taken which would change the IP service model. Doing this without understanding the implications on applications can be dangerous. This draft attempts to document various aspects of the IP service model and how it has evolved over time. In particular, it attempts to document the properties of the IP layer as they are seen by upper- layer protocols and applications, and especially properties which were (and at times still are) incorrectly perceived to exist, as well as properties that changing would cause problems. 2. The IP Service Model In this document, we use the term "IP Service Model" to refer to the model exposed by IP to higher-layer protocols and applications. This is depicted in Figure 1 by the horizontal line. Thaler Expires January 14, 2009 [Page 3] Internet-Draft Evolution of the IP Model July 2008 +-------------+ +-------------+ | Application | | Application | +------+------+ +------+------+ | | +------+------+ +------+------+ | Upper-Layer | | Upper-Layer | | Protocol | | Protocol | +------+------+ +------+------+ | | ------------------------------------------------------------------ | | +--+--+ +-----+ +--+--+ | IP | | IP | | IP | +--+--+ +--+--+ +--+--+ | | | +-----+------+ +-----+------+ +-----+------+ | Link Layer | | Link Layer | | Link Layer | +-----+------+ +--+-----+---+ +-----+------+ | | | | +---------------------+ +--------------------+ Source Destination IP Service Model Figure 1 The foundation of the IP service model today is documented in [RFC0791] section 2.2. Generally speaking, IP provides a connectionless delivery service for variable size packets, which does not guarantee ordering, delivery, or lack of duplication, but is merely best effort. Senders can send to a destination address without signaling a priori, and receivers just listen on an already provisioned address, without signaling a priori. 2.1. Links and Subnets Section 2.1 of [RFC4903] discusses the terms "link" and "subnet" with respect to the IP model. A "link" in the IP service model refers to the topological area within which a packet with IPv4 TTL or IPv6 Hop Limit of 1 can be delivered. That is, where no IP-layer forwarding (which entails a TTL/Hop Limit decrement) occurs between two nodes. A "subnet" in the IP service model refers to the topological area within which addresses from the same subnet prefix are assigned to interfaces. Thaler Expires January 14, 2009 [Page 4] Internet-Draft Evolution of the IP Model July 2008 3. Common Application Assumptions Below is a list of properties which are often assumed by applications and upper-layer protocol, but which have become less true over time. 3.1. Assumptions about routing 3.1.1. Connectivity is symmetric Many applications assume that if a host A can contact a host B, then the reverse is also true. Examples of this behavior include request- response patterns, which only requires that reverse connectivity exists after forward connectivity, and callbacks (e.g., as used by the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) [RFC0959]). Originally it was the case that connectivity was symmetric (although the path taken may not be), both within a link and across the Internet. With the advent of technologies such as NATs and firewalls, this can no longer be assumed. However, it is still the case that if a request can be sent, then a reply to that request can generally be received, but an unsolicited request in the other direction may not be received. [RFC2993] discusses this in more detail. There are also links (e.g., satellite) which were defined as unidirectional links and hence an address on such a link results in asymmetric connectivity. [RFC3077] explicitly addresses this problem for multi-homed hosts by tunneling packets over another interface in order to restore symmetric connectivity. Finally, even with common wireless networks such as 802.11, this assumption may not be true, as discussed in [WIRELESS] section 5.5. 3.1.2. Connectivity is transitive Many applications assume that if a host A can contact host B, and B can contact C, then host A can contact C. An example of this behavior is applications and protocols that use referrals. Originally it was the case that connectivity was transitive, both within a link and across the Internet. With the advent of technologies such as NATs, and firewalls, this can no longer be assumed across the Internet, but it is often still true within a link. As a result, upper-layer protocols and applications may be relying on transitivity within a link. However, radio technologies such as 802.11 ad-hoc mode violate this assumption. Thaler Expires January 14, 2009 [Page 5] Internet-Draft Evolution of the IP Model July 2008 3.1.3. Multicast is supported within a link [RFC1112] introduced multicast to the IP service model. In this evolution, senders still just send to a destination address without signaling a priori, but in contrast to the original IP model, receivers must signal to the network before they can receive traffic to a multicast address. Today, many applications and protocols are defined to use multicast addresses, including protocols for address configuration, service discovery, etc. (See [MCAST4] and [MCAST6] for those that use well- known addresses.) Most of these assume that multicast works within a link, but may or may not function across a wider area. While network-layer multicast works over most link types, there are Non-Broadcast Multi-Access (NBMA) links over which multicast does not work (e.g., X.25, ATM, frame relay, 6to4, ISATAP, Teredo) and this can interfere with some protocols and applications. Similarly, there are links such as 802.11 ad-hoc mode where multicast packets may not get delivered to all receivers on the link. [RFC2461] and its successor [RFC4861] both state: "Note that all link types (including NBMA) are expected to provide multicast service for applications that need it (e.g., using multicast servers)." However, not all link types today do meet this expectation. 3.1.4. IPv4 broadcast is supported IPv4 broadcast support was originally defined on a link, across a network, and for subnet directed broadcast, and is used by many applications and protocols. For security reasons, however, [RFC2644] deprecated forwarding of broadcast packets, and hence since 1999 broadcast can only be relied on within a link. Still, there exist NBMA links over which broadcast does not work, and there exist some "semi-broadcast" links (e.g., 802.11 ad-hoc mode) where broadcast packets may not get delivered to all nodes on the link. Another case where broadcast fails to work is when a /32 or /31 is assigned to a point-to-point interface (e.g., [RFC3021]), leaving no broadcast address available. In addition, the addition of link-scoped multicast to the IP service model to a large extent obsoleted the need for broadcast. It is also worth noting that the broadcast API model used by most platforms allows receivers to just listen on an already provisioned address, without signaling a priori, but in contrast to the unicast API model, senders must signal to the local IP stack (SO_BROADCAST) before they Thaler Expires January 14, 2009 [Page 6] Internet-Draft Evolution of the IP Model July 2008 can send traffic to a broadcast address. However, from the network's perspective, the host still sends without signaling a priori. 3.1.5. Multicast/broadcast is less expensive than replicated unicast Some applications and upper-layer protocols use multicast or broadcast do so not because they do not know the addresses of receivers, but simply to avoid sending multiple copies of the same packet over the same link. In wired networks, sending a single multicast packet on a link is generally less expensive than sending multiple unicast packets. This may not be true for wireless networks, where implementations can only send multicast at the basic rate, regardless of the negotiated rates of potential receivers. As a result, replicated unicast may achieve much higher throughput across such links than multicast/broadcast traffic. 3.1.6. Reordering is rare As discussed in [REORDER], [RFC2991], and [RFC3819] section 15, there are a number of effects of reordering. For example, reordering increases buffering requirements (and jitter) in many applications, and in devices that do packet reassembly. TCP [RFC0793] in particular is adversely affected by reordering since it enters fast- retransmit when three packets are received before a late packet, which drastically lowers throughput. Today there are number of things that cause reordering. First, some routers do per-packet round-robin load balancing, which, depending on the topology, can result in a great deal of reordering. Second, protocols such as Protocol Independent Multicast - Sparse Mode (PIM-SM) [RFC4601], the Multicast Source Discovery Protocol (MSDP) [RFC3618], and Mobile IPv6 [RFC3775] send packets on one path, and then allow immediately switching to a shorter path, resulting in deterministic reordering within the first burst of packets. There are various proposals currently being evaluated by the IETF Routing Research Group that result in similar reordering. An undesirable effect of reordering among initial packets is that some applications choose a destination address by sending a message to each of a number of candidates, picking the first one to respond, and then using that destination for subsequent communication. A high degree of reordering can result in a highly non-optimal destination being chosen, with much longer paths (and hence load on the Internet) and lower throughput. Thaler Expires January 14, 2009 [Page 7] Internet-Draft Evolution of the IP Model July 2008 3.1.7. Loss is rare and probabilistic, not deterministic In the original IP model, senders just send, without signaling the network a priori. This works to a degree. In practice, the last hop (and in rare cases, other hops) of the path needs to resolve next hop information (e.g., the link-layer address of the destination) on demand which results in queuing traffic, and if the queue fills up, some traffic gets dropped. This means that bursty sources can be problematic (and indeed a single large packet that gets fragmented becomes such a burst at the last hop). The problem is rarely observed in practice today, either because the resolution within the last hop happens very quickly, or because bursty applications are rarer. However, any protocol that significantly increases such delays or adds new resolutions would be a change to the classic IP model and may adversely impact upper-layer protocols and applications that result in bursts of packets. In addition, mechanisms that simply drop the first packet, rather than queuing it, also break this assumption. Similar to the result of reordering, they can result in a highly non-optional destination being chosen by applications that use the first one to respond. Two examples of mechanisms that appear to do this are network interface cards that support a "Wake-on-LAN" capability where any packet that matches a specified pattern will wake up a machine in a power- conserving mode, but only after dropping the matching packet, and MSDP (since encapsulating data packets is optional). 3.1.8. An end-to-end path exists at a single point in time In classic IP, applications assume that an end-to-end path either exists to a destination, or that the packet will be dropped. In addition, IP today tends to assume that the packet delay is relatively short (since the "Time"-to-live is just a hop count, since each hop is assumed to be less than a second), whereas earlier the TTL field was expected to be decremented each second (not just each hop). The IRTF Delay Tolerant Networking Research Group investigating changing this assumption. 3.2. Assumptions about addressing 3.2.1. Addresses are stable over long periods of time Originally addresses were manually configured on fixed machines, and hence addresses were very stable. With the advent of technologies such as DHCP, roaming, and wireless, addresses can no longer be assumed to be stable for long periods of time. However, the APIs provided to applications today typically still assume stable addresses (e.g., address lifetimes are not exposed to applications Thaler Expires January 14, 2009 [Page 8] Internet-Draft Evolution of the IP Model July 2008 that get addresses). This can cause problems today when addresses become stale. For example, many applications resolve names to addresses and then cache them without any notion of lifetime. In fact, the classic name resolution APIs do not even provide applications with the lifetime of entries. Proxy Mobile IPv6 [I-D.ietf-netlmm-proxymip6] tries to restore this assumption to some extent by preserving the same address while roaming around a local area. The issue of roaming between different networks has been known since at least 1980 when [IEN135] proposed a mobility solution that attempted to restore this assumption by adding an additional address that can be used by applications which is stable while roaming anywhere with Internet connectivity. More recent protocols such as Mobile IPv6 (MIP6) [RFC3775] and the Host Identity Protocol (HIP) [RFC4423] follow in this same vein. 3.2.2. A non-multicast/broadcast address identifies a single host over a long period of time Many applications and upper-layer protocols maintain a communication session with a destination over some period of time. If that address is reassigned to another host, or if that address is assigned to multiple hosts and the host at which packets arrive changes, such applications can have problems. [RFC1546] introduced the notion of anycast to the IP service model. It states: Because anycasting is stateless and does not guarantee delivery of multiple anycast datagrams to the same system, an application cannot be sure that it is communicating with the same peer in two successive UDP transmissions or in two successive TCP connections to the same anycast address. The obvious solutions to these issues are to require applications which wish to maintain state to learn the unicast address of their peer on the first exchange of UDP datagrams or during the first TCP connection and use the unicast address in future conversations. The issues with anycast are further discussed in [RFC4786]. 3.2.3. A host has only one address on one interface Although many applications assume this (e.g., by calling a name resolution function such as gethostbyname and then just using the first address returned), it was never really true to begin with, even if it was the common case. Even [RFC0791] states: Thaler Expires January 14, 2009 [Page 9] Internet-Draft Evolution of the IP Model July 2008 "provision must be made for a host to have several physical interfaces to the network with each having several logical internet addresses". However today this assumption is increasingly less true, with the advent of multiple interfaces (e.g., wired and wireless), dual-IPv4/ IPv6 nodes, multiple IPv6 addresses on the same interface (e.g., link-local and global), etc. Similarly, many protocol specifications such as DHCP only describe operations for a single interface, whereas obtaining host-wide configuration from multiple interfaces presents a merging problem for nodes in practice. Too often this problem is simply ignored by Working Groups, and applications and users suffer as a result from poor merging algorithms. One use of protocols such as MIP6 and HIP is to make this assumption somewhat more true by adding an additional "address" that can be the one used by such applications, and the protocol will deal with the complexity of multiple physical interfaces and addresses. 3.3. Assumptions about the relationship between routing and addressing 3.3.1. An address used by an application is the same as the address used for routing Some applications assume that the address the application uses is the same as that used by routing. For example, some applications use raw sockets to read/write packet headers, including the source and destination addresses in the IP header. As another example, some applications make assumptions about locality (e.g., whether the destination is on the same subnet) by comparing addresses. Protocols such as Mobile IPv6 and HIP specifically break this assumption (in an attempt to restore other assumptions as discussed above). Recently, the IRTF Routing Research Group has been evaluating a number of possible mechanisms, some of which would also break this assumption, while others preserve this assumption near the edges of the network and only break it in the core of the Internet. Breaking this assumption is sometimes referred to as an "identifier/ locator" split. As originally defined in 1978 ([IEN019], [IEN023]), however, an address was originally defined as only a locator, whereas names were defined to be the identifiers. However, the TCP protocol then used addresses as identifiers. Finally, in a liberal sense, any tunneling mechanism might be said to break this assumption, although in practice applications that make this assumption will continue to work. Since the address of the inside of the tunnel is still used for routing as expected. Thaler Expires January 14, 2009 [Page 10] Internet-Draft Evolution of the IP Model July 2008 3.3.2. A subnet is smaller than a link In the classic IP model, a "subnet" is smaller than, or equal to, a "link". Destinations with addresses in the same subnet can be reached with TTL (or Hop Count) = 1. Link-scoped multicast packets, and all-ones broadcast packets will be delivered (in a best effort fashion) to all listening nodes on the link. Subnet broadcast packets will be delivered (in a best effort fashion) to all listening nodes in the subnet. There have been some efforts in the past (e.g., [RFC0925], [RFC3069]) to allow multi-link subnets and change the above service model, but the adverse impact on applications that have such assumptions recommend against changing this assumption. [RFC4903] discusses this topic in more detail and surveys a number of protocols and applications that depend on this assumption. 3.3.3. Selecting a local address selects the interface Some applications assume that binding to a given local address constrains traffic reception to the interface with that address, and that traffic from that address will go out on that address's interface. However, [RFC1122] section 3.3.4.2 defines two models: the Strong End System (or Strong host) model where this is true, and the Weak End System (or Weak host) model where this is not true. In fact any router is inherently a weak host implementation, since packets can be forwarded between interfaces. 3.3.4. An address is part of an on-link subnet To some extent, this was never true, in that there were cases in IPv4 where the "mask" was 255.255.255.255, such as on a point-to-point link where the two endpoints had addresses out of unrelated address spaces. However, this didn't stop many platforms and applications from assuming that every address had a "mask" (or prefix) that was on-link. The assumption of whether a subnet is on-link (in which case one can send directly to the destination after using ARP/ND) or off-link (in which case one just sends to a router) has evolved over the years, and it can no longer be assumed that an address has an on- link prefix. In 1998, [RFC2461] introduced the distinction as part of the core IPv6 protocol suite. This topic is discussed further in [I-D.wbeebee-on-link-and-off-link-determination], and [RFC4903] also touches on this topic with respect to the service model seen by applications. 3.4. Assumptions about upper-layer extensibility Thaler Expires January 14, 2009 [Page 11] Internet-Draft Evolution of the IP Model July 2008 3.4.1. New transport-layer protocols can work across the Internet IP was originally designed to support the addition of new transport- layer protocols, and [PROTOCOLS] lists many such protocols. However, as discussed in [I-D.rosenberg-internet-waist-hourglass], NATs and firewalls today break this assumption and often only allow UDP and TCP (or even just HTTP). 3.5. Assumptions about security 3.5.1. Packets are unmodified in transit Some applications and upper-layer protocols assume that a packet is unmodified in transit, except for a few well-defined fields (e.g., TTL). Examples of this behavior include protocols that define their own integrity protection mechanism such as a checksum. This assumption is broken by NATs as discussed in [RFC2993] and other middleboxes that modify the contents of packets. There are many tunneling technologies (e.g., [RFC4380]) that attempt to restore this assumption to some extent. The IPsec architecture [RFC4301] added security to the IP model, providing a way to address this problem without changing applications, although it is not currently widely used over the Internet. 3.5.2. Packets are private The assumption that data is private has never really been true. However, many old applications and protocols (e.g., FTP) transmit passwords or other sensitive data in the clear. IPsec provides a way to address this problem without changing applications, although it is not yet widely deployed, and doing encryption/decryption for all packets can be computationally expensive. 3.5.3. Source addresses are not spoofed Most applications and protocols use the source address of some incoming packet when generating a response, and hence assume that it has not been spoofed (and as a result can often be vulnerable to reflection attachs). Various mechanisms that restore this assumption include, for example, IPsec and Cryptographically Generated Addresses (CGAs) [RFC3972]. Thaler Expires January 14, 2009 [Page 12] Internet-Draft Evolution of the IP Model July 2008 4. Impact Because a huge number of applications already exist that use TCP/IP for business-critical operations, any changes to the service model need to be done with extreme care. Extensions that merely add additional optional functionality without impacting any existing applications are much safer than extensions which change one or more of the core assumptions discussed above. Any changes to the above assumptions should only be done in accordance with some mechanism to minimize or mitigate the risks of breaking mission-critical applications. Historically, changes have been done without regard to such considerations and as a result the situation for applications today is already problematic. Key to maintaining an interoperable Internet is documenting and maintaining invariants that higher layers can depend on, and being very judicious with changes. 5. Security Considerations This document discusses assumptions about the IP service model made by many applications and upper-layer protocols. Whenever these assumptions are broken, if the application or upper-layer protocol has some security-related behavior that is based on the assumption, then security can be affected. For example, if an application assumes that binding to the IP address of a "trusted" interface means that it will never receive traffic from an "untrusted" interface, and that assumption is broken (as discussed in Section 3.3.3) then an attacker could get access to private information. As a result, great care should be taken when expanding the extent to which an assumption is false. On the other hand, application and upper-layer protocol developers should carefully consider the impact of basing their security on any of the assumptions enumerated in this document. It is also worth noting that many of the changes that have occurred over time (e.g., firewalls, dropping directed broadcasts, etc.) that are discussed in this document were done in the interest of improving security at the expense of breaking some applications. 6. IANA Considerations This document has no IANA Actions. Thaler Expires January 14, 2009 [Page 13] Internet-Draft Evolution of the IP Model July 2008 7. Acknowledgements Bernard Aboba, Chris Hopps, Kurtis Lindqvist, Danny McPherson, Dow Street, and others provided helpful discussion on various points that led to this document. 8. References 8.1. Normative References [RFC0791] Postel, J., "Internet Protocol", STD 5, RFC 791, September 1981. [RFC1112] Deering, S., "Host extensions for IP multicasting", STD 5, RFC 1112, August 1989. [RFC1122] Braden, R., "Requirements for Internet Hosts - Communication Layers", STD 3, RFC 1122, October 1989. [RFC1546] Partridge, C., Mendez, T., and W. Milliken, "Host Anycasting Service", RFC 1546, November 1993. [RFC2461] Narten, T., Nordmark, E., and W. Simpson, "Neighbor Discovery for IP Version 6 (IPv6)", RFC 2461, December 1998. [RFC2644] Senie, D., "Changing the Default for Directed Broadcasts in Routers", BCP 34, RFC 2644, August 1999. [RFC4301] Kent, S. and K. Seo, "Security Architecture for the Internet Protocol", RFC 4301, December 2005. [RFC4861] Narten, T., Nordmark, E., Simpson, W., and H. Soliman, "Neighbor Discovery for IP version 6 (IPv6)", RFC 4861, September 2007. 8.2. Informative References [I-D.ietf-netlmm-proxymip6] Gundavelli, S., Leung, K., Devarapalli, V., Chowdhury, K., and B. Patil, "Proxy Mobile IPv6", draft-ietf-netlmm-proxymip6-18 (work in progress), May 2008. [I-D.rosenberg-internet-waist-hourglass] Rosenberg, J., "UDP and TCP as the New Waist of the Internet Hourglass", Thaler Expires January 14, 2009 [Page 14] Internet-Draft Evolution of the IP Model July 2008 draft-rosenberg-internet-waist-hourglass-00 (work in progress), February 2008. [I-D.wbeebee-on-link-and-off-link-determination] Singh, H., Beebee, W., and E. Nordmark, "IPv6 Subnet Model", draft-wbeebee-on-link-and-off-link-determination-02 (work in progress), February 2008. [IEN019] Shoch, J., "A note on Inter-Network Naming, Addressing, and Routing", IEN 19, January 1978, . [IEN023] Cohen, D., "On Names, Addresses and Routings", IEN 23, January 1978, . [IEN028] Postel, J., "Draft Internetwork Protocol Specification", IEN 28, February 1978, . [IEN135] Sunshine, C. and J. Postel, "Addressing Mobile Hosts in the ARPA Internet Environment", IEN 135, March 1980, . [MCAST4] Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, "IPv4 Multicast Addresses", . [MCAST6] Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, "INTERNET PROTOCOL VERSION 6 MULTICAST ADDRESSES", . [PROTOCOLS] Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, "Protocol Numbers", . [REORDER] Bennett, J., Partridge, C., and N. Shectman, "Packet reordering is not pathological network behavior", IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, Vol. 7, No. 6, December 1999. [RFC0793] Postel, J., "Transmission Control Protocol", STD 7, RFC 793, September 1981. [RFC0925] Postel, J., "Multi-LAN address resolution", RFC 925, October 1984. Thaler Expires January 14, 2009 [Page 15] Internet-Draft Evolution of the IP Model July 2008 [RFC0959] Postel, J. and J. Reynolds, "File Transfer Protocol", STD 9, RFC 959, October 1985. [RFC2991] Thaler, D. and C. Hopps, "Multipath Issues in Unicast and Multicast Next-Hop Selection", RFC 2991, November 2000. [RFC2993] Hain, T., "Architectural Implications of NAT", RFC 2993, November 2000. [RFC3021] Retana, A., White, R., Fuller, V., and D. McPherson, "Using 31-Bit Prefixes on IPv4 Point-to-Point Links", RFC 3021, December 2000. [RFC3069] McPherson, D. and B. Dykes, "VLAN Aggregation for Efficient IP Address Allocation", RFC 3069, February 2001. [RFC3077] Duros, E., Dabbous, W., Izumiyama, H., Fujii, N., and Y. Zhang, "A Link-Layer Tunneling Mechanism for Unidirectional Links", RFC 3077, March 2001. [RFC3618] Fenner, B. and D. Meyer, "Multicast Source Discovery Protocol (MSDP)", RFC 3618, October 2003. [RFC3775] Johnson, D., Perkins, C., and J. Arkko, "Mobility Support in IPv6", RFC 3775, June 2004. [RFC3819] Karn, P., Bormann, C., Fairhurst, G., Grossman, D., Ludwig, R., Mahdavi, J., Montenegro, G., Touch, J., and L. Wood, "Advice for Internet Subnetwork Designers", BCP 89, RFC 3819, July 2004. [RFC3972] Aura, T., "Cryptographically Generated Addresses (CGA)", RFC 3972, March 2005. [RFC4380] Huitema, C., "Teredo: Tunneling IPv6 over UDP through Network Address Translations (NATs)", RFC 4380, February 2006. [RFC4423] Moskowitz, R. and P. Nikander, "Host Identity Protocol (HIP) Architecture", RFC 4423, May 2006. [RFC4601] Fenner, B., Handley, M., Holbrook, H., and I. Kouvelas, "Protocol Independent Multicast - Sparse Mode (PIM-SM): Protocol Specification (Revised)", RFC 4601, August 2006. [RFC4786] Abley, J. and K. Lindqvist, "Operation of Anycast Services", BCP 126, RFC 4786, December 2006. Thaler Expires January 14, 2009 [Page 16] Internet-Draft Evolution of the IP Model July 2008 [RFC4903] Thaler, D., "Multi-Link Subnet Issues", RFC 4903, June 2007. [WIRELESS] Kotz, D., Newport, C., and C. Elliott, "The mistaken axioms of wireless-network research", Dartmouth College Computer Science Technical Report TR2003-467, July 2003, . Author's Address Dave Thaler Microsoft Corporation One Microsoft Way Redmond, WA 98052 USA Phone: +1 425 703 8835 Email: dthaler@microsoft.com Thaler Expires January 14, 2009 [Page 17] Internet-Draft Evolution of the IP Model July 2008 Full Copyright Statement Copyright (C) The IETF Trust (2008). This document is subject to the rights, licenses and restrictions contained in BCP 78, and except as set forth therein, the authors retain all their rights. This document and the information contained herein are provided on an "AS IS" basis and THE CONTRIBUTOR, THE ORGANIZATION HE/SHE REPRESENTS OR IS SPONSORED BY (IF ANY), THE INTERNET SOCIETY, THE IETF TRUST AND THE INTERNET ENGINEERING TASK FORCE DISCLAIM ALL WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO ANY WARRANTY THAT THE USE OF THE INFORMATION HEREIN WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY RIGHTS OR ANY IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. 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The IETF invites any interested party to bring to its attention any copyrights, patents or patent applications, or other proprietary rights that may cover technology that may be required to implement this standard. Please address the information to the IETF at ietf-ipr@ietf.org. Thaler Expires January 14, 2009 [Page 18]