Transport Working Group D. Raz INTERNET-DRAFT Bell-Labs, Lucent Technologies Category: Informational B. Sugla Expire in six months Bell-Labs, Lucent Technologies October 1999 An SNMP Application Level Gateway for Payload Address Translation Status of this Memo This document is an Internet-Draft and is in full conformance with all provisions of Section 10 of RFC2026. Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), its areas, and its working groups. Note that other groups may also distribute working documents as Internet- Drafts. Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months. Internet-Drafts may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any time. It is not appropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference material or to cite them other than as a "working draft" or "work in progress". The list of current Internet-Drafts can be accessed at http://www.ietf.org/ietf/1id-abstracts.txt The list of Internet-Draft Shadow Directories can be accessed at http://www.ietf.org/shadow.html. To learn the current status of any Internet-Draft, please check the 1id-abstracts.txt listing contained in the Internet-Drafts Shadow Directories on ds.internic.net (US East Coast), nic.nordu.net (Europe), ftp.isi.edu (US West Coast), or munnari.oz.au (Pacific Rim). Preface The SNMP Application Level Gateway for Payload Address Translation described in this document is a specific case of an Application Level Gateway (ALG), as described in [SH 99] and [FE 98]. In some settings, there is a need to use the SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) with NAT in order to manage several addressing realms with conflicting IP addresses. This document includes detailed description of the requirements for an implementation of such a gateway. Abstract The SNMP Application Level Gateway (SNMP ALG) is a feature by which IP addresses in the payload of SNMP packets are statically mapped from one group to another, transparent to management applications. This requires Bi-directional NAT enroute, using static address assignment [3.1.1. in SH99]. Further, this document describes a mechanism by which a management device can Raz Sugla [Page 1] Internet Draft SNMP ALG October 1999 manage multiple networks that use conflicting IP addresses when operating within the scope described below. 1. Introduction The need for IP address translation arises when a network's internal IP addresses cannot be used outside the network either for security reasons or because they are invalid for use outside the network. Topology outside a local domain can change in many ways. Customers may change providers, company backbones may be reorganized, or providers may merge or split. Address translation allows hosts in such private networks to transparently access an external network and vice versa. In many of these cases, there is a need to manage the local addressing realm from a manager site outside the domain. However, managing such networks is problematic. Most available management applications use SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) to retrieve address information from the network elements. For example, a router may be queried by the management application about the addresses of its neighboring elements. This information is then sent by the router back to the management station as part of the payload of an SNMP packet. In order to retain consistency in the view as seen by the management station we need to be able to locate and translate IP address related information in the payload of such packets. The SNMP Application Level Gateway for Payload Address Translation, or SNMP ALG, is a technique in which the payload of SNMP packets (PDUs) is scanned and all IP address related information is translated if needed. In this context SNMP ALG can be an additional component in any NAT implementation, or be a separate entity, that may reside in the same gateway or even on a separate node. Note that in our context of management application all devices in the network are assumed to have a fixed IP address. Thus, SNMP ALG should only be combined with NAT that uses static address assignment for all the devices in the network. 2. Problem scope and requirements on NAT This section describes the scope of the SNMP ALG solution, and points out the main limitations of using it. As mentioned before, in many cases, there is a need to manage a local addressing realm that is using NAT, from a manager site outside the realm. A particular important example is the case of NM service providers who provide network management services from Raz Sugla [Page 2] Internet Draft SNMP ALG October 1999 a remote site. Such providers may have many customers, each using the same private address space. When all these addressing realms are to be managed from a single management station address collision occurs. There are two straight forward ways to overcome the address collision. One can (1) reassign IP addresses to the different addressing realms, or (2) use static address NAT and make the application be aware of it. The first solution is problematic as it requires both a potentially large set of IP addresses, and the reconfiguration of a large portion of the network. The problem with the second solution is that many network management applications are currently unaware of NAT, and because of the large investment needed in order to make them NAT aware are likely to remain so in the near future. The need is then for a solution that is transparent to the network management application (but not to the user), and that does not require a general reconfiguration of a large portion of the network (i.e. the addressing realm). SNMP ALG is such a solution. The SNMP ALG requires Bi-directional NAT devices enroute, that support static address mapping for all nodes in the respective private realms. Further, when there are multiple private realms supported by a single SNMP ALG, the external addresses assumed by each of the NAT devices must not collide with each other. We suggest two levels of implementation: (1) Basic SNMP ALG: this is an SNMP ALG implementation in which only IpAddress type in the BER encoding is translated. (2) Advanced SNMP ALG: this is an SNMP ALG implementation which is generally MIB aware and is capable of handling and replacing IpAddress values encoded in instance identifiers. The basic SNMP ALG does not require knowledge of the MIBs, is easier to implement, and does not change the messages size. However, the translation of IP related information which is encoded using other SNMP data types may be needed for some applications. In such a case, advanced SNMP ALG should be used. Note that using advanced SNMP ALG may increase the packet size and change the lexicographic order in the presented MIB. A more detailed discussion of the various limitations associated with Raz Sugla [Page 3] Internet Draft SNMP ALG October 1999 the different levels of implementation and discussion of other possible solutions can be found in section 7.0. 3. Terminology and concepts used In general we adapt the terminology used in [SH 99]. Our main concern is packets used by the SNMP protocol. These are typically UDP packets that contain SNMP messages. SNMP messages contain PDUs (Protocol Data Units) which defines the parameters for SNMP protocol operations. The notion of flow is less relevant in this case, and hence we will focus on the information contained in a single packet. SNMP version 1 is defined in RFC 1157. Other RFCs (1155, 1213, 1215) define the structure of the managed information (SMI) and the management information base (MIB). There are many versions of SNMP. For simplicity, unless otherwise mentioned, we refer to SNMP version 1 as SNMP. See RFC 2570 for introduction to related SNMP standards. SNMP uses ASN.1 to define the abstract syntax of the messages. The actual encoding of the messages is done using the basic encoding rules (BER), which provide the transfer syntax. These standards are defined in ISO 8824-1, and ISO 8825-1. We also consider in this document IPv4, and thus we refer to IPv4 addresses as just IP addresses. We use the terms basic and advanced SNMP ALG to describe the different levels of implementation, as explained in Section 3. We also refer to packets that go from the management station to the network elements as "outgoing", and packets that go from the network elements to the management station as "incoming". 4. Overview of the SNMP application level gateway Using basic address translation allows local hosts on a private network (addressing realm) to transparently access the external global network and enables access to selective local hosts from the outside. This solution is becoming widely popular as the range of IPv4 addresses is limited. In particular it is not unlikely to have several addressing realms that are using the same private IP address space within the same organization. However, managing such a network presents unique problems and challenges. Managing devices execute management applications that typically use the SNMP simple network management protocol, to exchanges IP address related information. Thus, in order for Raz Sugla [Page 4] Internet Draft SNMP ALG October 1999 the SNMP application to work transparently across NAT, Application Level Gateways, or ALGs, may be used to perform translation on SNMP packets. This translation of the payload of SNMP packets is called an SNMP Application Level Gateway - or just SNMP ALG. A typical scenario where SNMP ALG is deployed as part of NAT is presented in figure 1. A manager device is managing a remote stub, with translated IP addresses. \ | / . +---------------+ WAN . +------------------------------+ |Regional Router|-----------------|Stub Router w/NAT and SNMP ALG| +---------------+ . +------------------------------+ | . | | . | LAN +----------+ . --------------- |Manager | Stub border Managed network +----------+ Figure 1: NAT+SNMP ALG configuration A similar scenario occurs when several subnetworks with private (and possibly conflicting) IP addresses are to be managed by the same management station. This scenario is presented in Figure 2. +---------------+ +-----------------+ | SNMP ALG |-----|Management device| +---------------+ +-----------------+ T1 | | T1 | | Stub A .............|.... ....|............ Stub B | | +---------------+ +----------------+ |Bi-directional | |Bi-directional | |NAT Router w/ | |NAT Router w/ | |static address | |static address | |mapping | |mapping | +---------------+ +---------------+ | | | LAN LAN | ------------- ------------- 192.10.x.y | | 192.10.x.y /____\ /____\ Figure 2: Using external SNMP ALG to manage two private networks Raz Sugla [Page 5] Internet Draft SNMP ALG October 1999 Since the devices in the managed network are monitored by the manager device they must obtain a fixed IP address. Therefore, the NAT used in this case must be a basic NAT with a static one to one mapping. A management payload translator is required to scan all the payload of SNMP packets, to detect IP address related data, and to translate this data if needed. This is a much more computationally involved process than the bi-directional NAT, however they both use the same translation tables. In many cases the router may be unable to handle SNMP ALG and retain acceptable performance. In these cases it may be better to locate the SNMP ALG outside the router, as described in Figure 2. 5.0 Parsing and translating data in SNMP packets SNMP packets are built using the ASN.1/BER encoding. We will not cover the full details of this encoding in this document. These details can be found in the International Standards ISO-8824 and ISO-8825. A good description of ASN.1/BER can be found in the book Managing Internetworks with SNMP, by M. A. Miller [Mi 97], or in Appendix A of the book Understanding SNMP MIBs, by D. Perkins, and E. McGinnis [PM 97]. 5.1. General description of the encoding of data in SNMP PDU's (ASN.1 and BER) In general, each variable that is referred to in an SNMP packet has a unique OID (Object Identifier) which is a set of numbers separated by a dot (for example: 1.2.4.56.12.34). This OID gives a unique identification to each variable. Each variable also has a type (this is not very accurate but good enough for this level of description). One possible type is the IP address type. The type of each piece of data, and its OID are part of the ASN.1/BER encoding. When a value of a variable is needed by a manager it sends a get-request PDU with the OID of that variable, and a null value. The managed element then responds by sending a get-response PDU that has in it the same OID, the type of the variable, and the current value. Here is an example of real data in an SNMP get-response PDU packet: Raz Sugla [Page 6] Internet Draft SNMP ALG October 1999 +-----------------------------------------+ | IP Header | 45 00 00 5E | | 47 40 00 00 | | 3F 11 39 00 | | 87 B4 8C CA | | 87 B4 8C 16 +-----------------------------------------+ | UDP Header | 00 A1 05 F5 | | 00 4A D3 65 +-----------------------------------------+ | SNMP Message | 30 82 00 3E | version | | 02 01 00 04 | Community = public | 06 70 75 62 | | | 6C 69 63 A2 | PDU Type | | 82 00 2F 02 | Request ID | 04 6C F2 0C | | Error Status | 5C 02 01 00 | Error Index | SEQUENCE | 02 01 00 30 | of length 31 | SEQUENCE | 82 00 1F 30 | of length 27 | OID | 82 00 1B 06 | length=19 | | 13 2B 06 01 | | 02 01 07 05 | | 01 01 81 40 | | 81 34 81 0C | | 81 4A 84 08 | IP Type | 135 | 180 | 40 04 87 B4 | 140 | 202 +-------------------+ 8C CA +---------------------+ The first 20 bytes are the IP header. The next 8 bytes are the UDP header, with the last two bytes in it the UDP checksum (D3 65). The next four bytes 30 82 00 3E are the beginning of the SNMP message: 30 is SEQUENCE, and 82 00 3E is the length of the payload in bytes (62). Next come the Version (02 01 00) and the Community (04 06 .. 63 = public). The next part is the PDU, first item is the PDU type (A2 82 00 2F = GetResponse), the request ID (02 04 6C F2 0C 5C), the Error Status (02 01 00 = No Error), and the Error Index (02 01 00). Now come the variables (i.e. the real data): SEQUENCE OF of length 31 (30 82 00 1F). The first element is a SEQUENCE of length 27 (30 82 00 1B). In it, the first object is an OID of length 19 (06 13), then comes the OID: 1.3.6.1.2.1.7.5.1.1.192.180.140.202.520. The last 6 octets 40 04 87 B4 8C CA represent an IP address: 40 is the type IP address, 04 is the length, and the next four octets are the IP address: 135.180.140.202. Raz Sugla [Page 7] Internet Draft SNMP ALG October 1999 5.2. Translating IP address type The basic requirement from SNMP ALG is that it will be able to detect IP addresses in the SNMP packets' payload. Once an IP address is detected, SNMP ALG should check the translation table and decide whether this address should be translated. If so, the 4 bytes representing the IPv4 address should be replaced by the translated address, and the UDP checksum should be adjusted. Therefore, SNMP ALG should parse the ASN.1/BER encoding, looking for an IP address type. If it sees a different object type it can jump to the beginning of the next object, unless the object is a SEQUENCE Of. In that case the sequence should be parsed as it may contain an IP address type inside. If an object is of type IP address, the translation table is checked to see if this address needs to be translated, and if so what the new value should be. The translating function then should replace the 4 octets with the new address, and continue to parse the packet. 5.3. Advanced SNMP ALG For some applications it may be necessary to translate IP addresses that are not encoded in the standard way. It may be a part of a proprietary or a private MIB, which uses some other way to represent an IP address (Integers or ASCII). In that case, some external information is needed, which states the OID of the objects that are IP addresses and the way they are encoded. The translation function, then, scans the packet for these specific OIDs, checks the translation table and replaces the data if needed. Note that since OIDs do not have a fixed size this search is much more computationally consuming, and the lookup operation may be expensive. 5.4. Forwarding tables, and IP address type as a table index IP address type is used in the standard MIB-II (as defined in RFC 1213) as the index (or part of the index) of several tables. Some of the proprietary MIBs may also use it, since this is a very convenient way to store information related to IP addresses, e.g.: The following MIB-II tables have IP address type in their indexes: atTable, ipAddrTable, ipRouteTable, tcpConnTable, udpConnTable, egpNeighTable. The problem now is that if the manager is trying to retrieve a Raz Sugla [Page 8] Internet Draft SNMP ALG October 1999 specific value from one of these tables using the IP address as an index, it should use the local address and not the translated one. If the translated address is used then the index should be translated by SNMP ALG. However, if the access to the table is done in order to get the entire table, or the next entry in the table, such a translation may result in an unpredicted result. Note that in such cases translation of the queries is also required. The ability to translate IP addresses that are part of the tables' indexes is thus another required feature of advanced SNMP ALG. In this case the OID of the table should be predefined (by parsing the MIBs offline). This is a special case of the General MIB depended translation discussed in the last subsection. In this case the encoding of the address is known (and different from the IP address type). For example the IP address 135.180.140.202 is encoded as 87 B4 8C CA when it is IP address type (each byte is a number), and 81 40 81 34 81 0C 81 4A as an IP address index to a table (this is due to the OID encoding scheme). In this case the function searches for objects with an OID that matches one of the OIDs in the translating table. If such an object is found the next four OID numbers (it may be four to eight bytes, depending on the ranges of the specific IP address) of the OID are checked in the IP translation tables, and replaced if needed. This mechanism allows us to replace table entries in MIB tables indexed by IP addresses. A similar but a bit more complicated mechanism, can handle tables that are indexed by more than one IP address (like tcpConnTable). 5.5. Translation of outgoing and incoming packets If we only use basic SNMP ALG then we only need to translate packets that are going from the managed network to the management station (i.e. GetResponse and Trap packets), since they are the only ones containing IP addresses. Note that the outgoing SNMP messages contain only the OIDs of the requested variables, and do not have (in the payload) any IP address information. This is no longer true when IP addresses are used as table indexes. Thus, advanced SNMP ALG may require the translation of both outgoing and incoming messages. 6.0 Package size and UDP checksum Changing the IP address in the payload should not change the size of a packet, as we only replace 4 bytes by 4 bytes. Advanced SNMP ALG may require a change in the size as a different number Raz Sugla [Page 9] Internet Draft SNMP ALG October 1999 of bytes may be used to encode different IP addresses. This is highly undesirable. The BER encoding allows the use of both short and long length encoding to represent a small index (i.e. smaller than 127). Therefore, in the table index case one can always translate to long encoding. As a result, the encoded length will not decrease. However if a byte smaller than 127 in an IP address is translated to a value bigger than 127, an additional byte may be required (this depends on the encoding used by the agent application). This will require additional changes in the headers (UDP and IP). In any case the UDP checksum should be adjusted when making an IP translation. We can use the algorithm from [FE 98], but a small modification must be introduced as the 4 bytes may start on an odd position. The following C code adjusts the checksum to a replacement of one byte in an odd or even position: void checksumbyte(unsigned char *chksum, unsigned char *optr, unsigned char *nptr, int odd) /* assuming: unsigned char is 8 bits, long is 32 bits, we replace one byte by one byte in an odd position. - chksum points to the chksum in the packet - optr points to the old byte in the packet - nptr points to the new byte in the packet - odd is 1 if the byte is in an odd position 0 otherwise */ { long x, old, new; x=chksum[0]*256+chksum[1]; x=~x & 0xFFFF; if (odd) old=optr[0]*256; else old=optr[0]; x-=old & 0xFFFF; if (x<=0) { x--; x&=0xFFFF; } if (odd) new=nptr[0]*256; else new=nptr[0]; x+=new & 0xFFFF; if (x & 0x10000) { x++; x&=0xFFFF; } x=~x & 0xFFFF; chksum[0]=x/256; chksum[1]=x & 0xff;} Unlike TCP, the UDP checksum can be set to 0, which makes all the applications ignore it. This can be used by SNMP ALG if the computational resources are limited. 7.0. Limitations of SNMP ALG and possible alternative solutions As described before, making SNMP ALG completely transparent to all management applications is not an achievable task. SNMP ALG deals only with SNMP traffic, and therefore it does not modify Raz Sugla [Page 10] Internet Draft SNMP ALG October 1999 the payload of any other protocol. In particular the telnet utility which is often used by system administrators to configure the managed devices in the managed domain is not affected. In such a case, the administrator must be aware that a translation is occurring between the two realms. The main purpose of SNMP ALG is to be a transparent IP address translation mechanism for the automated discovery and management tools. This raises the issues of how to use SNMP ALG, what information and what not to translate. As described in Section 5, when IP address are used as table indices SNMP ALG cannot be transparent. Otherwise, an advanced SNMP ALG can only claim to be transparent for a given set of MIB modules. This implementation should have the additional knowledge needed to replace IP addresses embedded in all other SNMP data types (e.g. TAddress) that are used in this particular set of MIBs. Another possible problem is the additional complexity introduced to the over all management system by using SNMP ALG. This complexity should be compared to the complexity introduced by using alternative solutions. Using the general and OID translation features of advanced SNMP ALG may create additional problems such as: increasing the packet size and changing the lexicographic order in the presented MIB, as described in Section 5. One alternative solution to SNMP ALG may be to use SNMP proxies and to use SNMP contexts (or community strings in SNMPv1/SNMPv2c) to let the manager address the right destination. This solution, which is structurally preferable, requires that the management application will be aware of the proxy situation. Since SNMP proxies were originally designed to allow SNMP managers to manage legacy systems, in some applications the naming space for the network elements and the IP numbers are not appropriately separate. In such cases the application should also be aware of the NAT situation. Using proxies may also involve reconfiguration of both the network elements to redirect their traps to the proxy agent and the management station, to redirect traffic to the proxy. 7.1. Privacy, security, and debugging considerations We assume that all the management information is sent on the clear, i.e. without encryption and/or authentication. If such encryption tools are used, then the SNMP ALG must have access to the keys/protocols in order to be able to perform the translation Raz Sugla [Page 11] Internet Draft SNMP ALG October 1999 and/or to verify authentication. This should not be a problem since in many cases there is only one source for the management applications (i.e. this type of applications are not run by general users, and the same administrative organization is responsible both for the management application and NAT). However, the complexity and resources needed to perform the translation under these conditions will be much higher. 7.2. Translation of fragmented UDP packets As described in [FE 98], fragments of UDP packets do not carry the destination/source port number with them. In order to parse an SNMP packet the complete PDU must be built, and then sent to the translation function. Note that in an extreme case, fragmentation may cause an IP address type to be partitioned into two different fragments. The good news is, however, that usually the SNMP agents are aware of the MTU, and the SNMP packets are usually relatively small. 8. SNMP versions The use of the name SNMP may be confusing, since there are several versions of the Simple Network Management Protocol. The reader is referred to RFC 2570 or to the more detailed discussion in [FLRW 99] for details. An informal description of the different versions can be found in: http://www.simple-times.org/pub/simple-times/issues/5-1.html#alternative. This document covers SNMPv1. However, since the basic encoding of the PDU, including the use of the IP address type, in SNMPv2 is very much similar to SNMPv1, the principles of SNMP ALG as described in Sections 4 and 5 are valid for SNMPv2c. The use of SNMP ALG for SNMPv3 is not covered by this document. 9. Current implementations An SNMP ALG as described in this document was implemented in Bell-Labs in C, running on a Solaris Machine. The solution described in Figure 2, where SNMP ALG was combined with the NAT implementation of Lucent's PortMaster3, was deployed successfully in a large network management service organization. 10. Acknowledgments We thank Pyda Srisuresh, for the support, encouragement, and Raz Sugla [Page 12] Internet Draft SNMP ALG October 1999 advice throughout the work on this document. We also thank Brett A. Denison for his contribution to the work that led to this document. Very useful comments have been made by members of the NAT working group, in particular we thank Juergen Schoenwaelder for his suggestions. REFERENCES [FE 98] P. Srisuresh , and K. Egevang, "Traditional IP Network Address Translator (Traditional NAT)", - Work in progress [RFC 2663] P. Srisuresh, and M. Holdrege, "The IP Network Address Translator (NAT) Terminology and Considerations", August 1999. [RFC-1631] K. Egevang, and P. Francis, "The IP Network Address Translator (NAT)", RFC 1631 May 1994. [RFC-1466] E. Gerich, "Guidelines for Management of IP Address Space", RFC 1466, May 1993. [RFC-768] J. Postel, "User Datagram Protocol (UDP)", RFC 768. [RFC-950] J. Mogul, J. Postel, "Internet Standard Subnetting Procedure", RFC 950. [RFC 1157] J. Case, M. Fedor, M. Schoffstall, and J. Davin, "The Simple Network Management Protocol", RFC 1157, May 1990. [RFC 1213] K. McCloghrie, and M.T. Rose, "Management Information Base for Network Management of TCP/IP-based Internets: MIB-II", RFC 1213 March 1991. [RFC 1215] M.T. Rose, "Convention for Defining Traps for Use with the SNMP", RFC 1215 Mars 1991. [RFC 1155] K. McCloghrie, and M.T. Rose, "Structure and Identification of Management Information for TCP/IP-based Internets", RFC 1155 May 1990. [RFC 2003] C. Perkins, "IP Encapsulation within IP", RFC 2003, October 1996. [RFC 2570] J. Case, R. Mundy, D. Partain, and B. Stewart, Raz Sugla [Page 13] Internet Draft SNMP ALG October 1999 "Introduction to Version 3 of the Internet-standard Network Management Framework", RFC 2570, April 1999. [RFC 2571] D. Harrington, R. Presuhn, and B. Wijnen, "An Architecture for describing SNMP Management Frameworks", RFC 2571, May 1999. [RFC 2572] J. Case, D. Harrington, R. Presuhn, and B. Wijnen, "Message Processing and Dispatching for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)", RFC 2572, May 1999. [RFC 2573] D. Levi, B. Meyer, and B. Stewart, "SNMP Applications", RFC 2573, April 1999. [RFC 2574] U. Blumenthal, and B. Wijnen, "User-based Security Model (USM) for Version 3 of the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMPv3)", RFC 2574, April 1999. [RFC 2575] B. Wijnen, R. Presuhn, and K. McCloghrie, "View-based Access Control Model (VACM) for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)", RFC 2575, April 1999. [RFC 2570] J. Case, R. Mundy, D. Partain, and B. Stewart, "Introduction to Version 3 of the Internet-standard Network Management Framework", April 1999. [ISO-8824] International Organization for Standardization, Information Technology: Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1): Specification of Basic Notation, ISO/IEC 8824-1: 1995. [ISO-8825] International Organization for Standardization, Information Technology: ASN.1 Encoding Rules: Specification of Basic Encoding Rules (BER), Canonical Encoding Rules (CER) and Distinguished Encoding Rules (DER), ISO/IEC 8825-1: 1995. [Mi 97] M. A. Miller, "Managing Internetworks with SNMP", M&T Books,1997. [PM 97] D. Perkins, and E. McGinnis, "Understanding SNMP MIBs", Prentice-Hall, 1997. [FLRW 99] R. Fry, D. B. Routhier, and B. Wijnen, "Coexistence between Version 1, Version 2, and Version 3 of the Internet-standard Network Management Raz Sugla [Page 14] Internet Draft SNMP ALG October 1999 Framework", , Feb 1999. Authors' Addresses Danny Raz Bell Labs, Lucent Technologies Room 4G-637 101 Crawfords Corner Rd Holmdel, NJ 07733-3030 U.S.A. Voice: (732) 949-6712 Fax: (732) 949-0399 EMail: raz@lucent.com Binay Sugla Bell Labs, Lucent Technologies Room 4F-621 101 Crawfords Corner Rd Holmdel, NJ 07733-3030 U.S.A. Voice: (732) 949-0850 Fax: (732) 949-0399 EMail: sugla@lucent.com Raz Sugla [Page 15]