Internet DRAFT - draft-sarikaya-t2trg-sbootstrapping

draft-sarikaya-t2trg-sbootstrapping







Network Working Group                                           M. Sethi
Internet-Draft                                                  Ericsson
Intended status: Informational                               B. Sarikaya
Expires: August 22, 2021                             Denpel Informatique
                                                      D. Garcia-Carrillo
                                                    University of Oviedo
                                                       February 18, 2021


                   Secure IoT Bootstrapping: A Survey
                 draft-sarikaya-t2trg-sbootstrapping-11

Abstract

   This draft provides an overview of the various terms that are used
   when discussing bootstrapping of IoT devices.  We document terms that
   have been used within the IETF as well as other standards bodies.  We
   investigate if the terms refer to the same phenomena or have subtle
   differences.  We provide recommendations on the applicability of
   terms in different contexts.  Finally, this document presents a
   survey of secure bootstrapping mechanisms available for smart objects
   that are part of an Internet of Things (IoT) network.  The survey
   does not prescribe any one mechanism and rather presents IoT
   developers with different options to choose from, depending on their
   use-case, security requirements, and the user interface available on
   their IoT devices.

Status of This Memo

   This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the
   provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79.

   Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
   Task Force (IETF).  Note that other groups may also distribute
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   Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months
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   time.  It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference
   material or to cite them other than as "work in progress."

   This Internet-Draft will expire on August 22, 2021.








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Copyright Notice

   Copyright (c) 2021 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
   document authors.  All rights reserved.

   This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
   Provisions Relating to IETF Documents
   (https://trustee.ietf.org/license-info) in effect on the date of
   publication of this document.  Please review these documents
   carefully, as they describe your rights and restrictions with respect
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   include Simplified BSD License text as described in Section 4.e of
   the Trust Legal Provisions and are provided without warranty as
   described in the Simplified BSD License.

Table of Contents

   1.  Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   3
   2.  Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   4
   3.  Usage of bootstrapping terminology in standards . . . . . . .   4
     3.1.  Device Provisioning Protocol (DPP)  . . . . . . . . . . .   4
     3.2.  Open Mobile Alliance (OMA) Lightweight M2M (LwM2M)  . . .   5
     3.3.  Open Connectivity Foundation (OCF)  . . . . . . . . . . .   6
     3.4.  Bluetooth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   7
     3.5.  Fast IDentity Online (FIDO) alliance  . . . . . . . . . .   7
     3.6.  Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)  . . . . . . . . .   8
       3.6.1.  Enrollment over Secure Transport (EST)  . . . . . . .   8
       3.6.2.  Bootstrapping Remote Secure Key Infrastructures
               (BRSKI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   8
       3.6.3.  Secure Zero Touch Provisioning  . . . . . . . . . . .   8
       3.6.4.  Nimble out-of-band authentication for EAP (EAP-NOOB)    9
   4.  Comparison  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   9
   5.  Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   9
   6.  Classification of available mechanisms  . . . . . . . . . . .  10
   7.  IoT Device Bootstrapping Methods  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  11
     7.1.  Managed Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  11
       7.1.1.  Bootstrapping in LPWAN  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  13
     7.2.  Peer-to-Peer or Ad-hoc Methods  . . . . . . . . . . . . .  14
     7.3.  Leap-of-faith/Opportunistic Methods . . . . . . . . . . .  15
     7.4.  Hybrid Methods  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  16
   8.  Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  16
   9.  IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  17
   10. Acknowledgements  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  17
   11. Informative References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  17
   Authors' Addresses  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  23






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1.  Introduction

   We informally define bootstrapping as "any process that takes place
   before a device can become operational".  While bootstrapping is
   necessary for all computing devices, until recently, most of our
   devices typically had sufficient computing power and user interface
   (UI) for ensuring somewhat smooth operation.  For example, a typical
   laptop device required the user to setup a username/password as well
   as enter network settings for Internet connectivity.  Following these
   steps ensured that the laptop was fully operational.

   The problem of bootstrapping is however exacerbated for Internet of
   Things (IoT) networks.  The size of an IoT network varies from a
   couple of devices to tens of thousands, depending on the application.
   Smart objects/things/devices in IoT networks are produced by a
   variety of vendors and are typically heterogeneous in terms of the
   constraints on their power supply, communication capability,
   computation capacity, and user interfaces available.  This problem of
   bootstrapping in IoT was identified by Sethi et al.  [Sethi14] while
   developing a bootstrapping solution for smart displays.  Although
   this document focuses on bootstrapping terminology and methods for
   IoT devices, we do not exclude bootstrapping related terminology used
   in other contexts.

   Bootstrapping devices typically also involves providing them with
   some sort of network connectivity.  Indeed, the functionality of a
   disconnected device is rather limited.  Bootstrapping devices often
   assumes that some network has been setup a-priori.  Setting up and
   maintaining a network itself is challenging.  For example, users may
   need to configure the network name (called as Service Set Identifier
   (SSID) in Wi-Fi networks) and passpharse before new devices can be
   bootstrapped.  Specifications such as the Wi-Fi Alliance Simple
   Configuration [simpleconn] help users setup networks.  However, this
   document is only focused on terminology and processes associated with
   bootstrapping devices and excludes any discussion on setting up
   networks before devices can be bootstrapped.

   In addition to our informal definition, it is helpful to look at
   other definitions of bootstrapping.  The IoT@Work project defines
   bootstrapping in the context of IoT as "the process by which the
   state of a device, a subsystem, a network, or an application changes
   from not operational to operational" [iotwork].  Vermillard
   [vermillard] , on the other hand, describes bootstrapping as the
   procedure by which an IoT device gets the URLs and secret keys for
   reaching the necessary servers.  Vermillard notes that the same
   process is useful for re-keying, upgrading the security schemes, and
   for redirecting the IoT devices to new servers.




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   There are several terms that have often been used in the context of
   bootstrapping:

   o  Bootstrapping

   o  Provisioning

   o  Onboarding

   o  Enrollment

   o  Commissioning

   o  Initialization

   o  Configuration

   o  Registration

   We attempt to find out whether all these terms refer to the same
   phenomena.  We begin by looking at how these terms have been used in
   various standards and standardization bodies in Section 3.  We then
   summarize our understanding in Section 4, and provide our
   recommendations on their usage in Section 5.  Section 6 provides a
   taxonomy of bootstrapping methods and Section 7 categorizes methods
   according to the taxonomy.

2.  Terminology

   The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
   "SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and "OPTIONAL" in this
   document are to be interpreted as described in BCP 14
   [RFC2119][RFC8174].

3.  Usage of bootstrapping terminology in standards

   To better understand bootstrapping related terminology, let us first
   look at the terms used by some existing specifications:

3.1.  Device Provisioning Protocol (DPP)

   The Wi-Fi Alliance Device provisioning protocol (DPP) [dpp] describes
   itself as a standardized protocol for providing user friendly Wi-Fi
   setup while maintaining or increasing the security.  DPP relies on a
   configurator, e.g. a smartphone application, for setting up all other
   devices, called enrollees, in the network.  DPP has the following
   three phases/sub-protocols:




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   o  Bootstrapping: The configurator obtains bootstrapping information
      from the enrollee using an out-of-band channel such as scanning a
      QR code or tapping NFC.  The bootstrapping information includes
      the public-key of the device and metadata such as the radio
      channel on which the device is listening.

   o  Authentication: In DPP, either the configurator or the enrollee
      can initiate the authentication protocol.  The side initiating the
      authentication protocol is called as the initiator while the other
      side is called the responder.  The authentication sub-protocol
      provides authentication of the responder to an initiator.  It can
      optionally authenticate the initiator to the responder (only if
      the bootstrapping information was exchange out-of-band in both
      directions).

   o  Configuration: Using the key established from the authentication
      protocol, the enrollee asks the configurator for network
      information such as the SSID and passphrase of the access point.

3.2.  Open Mobile Alliance (OMA) Lightweight M2M (LwM2M)

   The OMA LwM2M specification [oma] defines an architecture where a new
   device (LwM2M client) contacts a Bootstrap-server which is
   responsible for "provisioning" essential information such as
   credentials.  After receiving this essential information, the LwM2M
   client device "registers" itself with one or more LwM2M Servers which
   will manage the device during its lifecycle.  The current standard
   defines the following four bootstrapping modes:

   o  Factory Bootstrap: An IoT device in this case is configured with
      all the necessary bootstrap information during manufacturing and
      prior to its deployment.

   o  Bootstrap from Smartcard: An IoT device retrieves and processes
      all the necessary bootstrap data from a Smartcard.

   o  Client Initiated Bootstrap: This mode provides a mechanism for an
      IoT client device to retrieve the bootstrap information from a
      Bootstrap Server.  This requires the client device to have an
      account at the Bootstrap Server and credentials to obtain the
      necessary information securely.

   o  Server Initiated Bootstrap: In this bootstrapping mode, the
      bootstrapping server configures all the bootstrap information on
      the IoT device without receiving a request from the client.  This
      means that the bootstrap server needs to know if a client IoT
      Device is ready for bootstrapping before it can be configured.




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      For example, a network may inform the bootstrap server of a new
      connecting IoT client device.

3.3.  Open Connectivity Foundation (OCF)

   The Open Connectivity Foundation (OCF) [ocf] defines the process
   before a device is operational as onboarding.  The first step of this
   onboarding process is "configuring" the ownership, i.e., establishing
   a legitimate user that owns the device.  For this, the user is
   supposed to use an Onboarding tool (OBT) and an Owner Transfer
   Methods (OTM).

   The OBT is described as a logical entity that may be implemented on a
   single or multiple entities such as a home gateway, a device
   management tool, etc.  OCF lists several optional OTMs.  At the end
   of the execution of an OTM, the onboarding tool must have
   "provisioned" an Owner Credential onto the device.  The following
   owner transfer methods are specified:

   o  Just works: Performs an un-authenticated Diffie-Hellman key
      exchange over Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS).  The key
      exchange results in a symmetric session key which is later used
      for provisioning.  Naturally, this mode is vulnerable to Man-in-
      The-Middle (MiTM) attackers.

   o  Random PIN: The device generates a PIN code that is entered into
      the onboarding tool by the user.  This pin code is used together
      with TLS-PSK ciphersuites for establishing a symmetric session
      key.  OCF recommends PIN codes to have an entropy of 40 bits.

   o  Manufacturer certificate: An onboarding tool authenticates the
      device by verifying a manufacturer installed certificate.
      Similarly, the device may authenticate the onboarding tool by
      verifying its signature.

   o  Vendor specific: Vendors implement their own transfer method that
      accommodates any specific device constraints.

   Once the onboarding tool and the new device have authenticated and
   established secure communication, the onboarding tool
   "provisions"/"configures" the device with Owner credentials.  Owner
   credentials may consist of certificates, shared keys, or Kerberos
   tickets for example.

   The OBT additionally configures/provisions information about the
   Access Management Service (AMS), the Credential Management Service
   (CMS), and the credentials for interacting with them.  The AMS is




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   responsible for provisioning access control entries, while the CMS
   provisions security credentials necessary for device operation.

3.4.  Bluetooth

   Bluetooth mesh provisioning.  Beacons for discovery.  Public-key
   exchange followed by authentication.  Finally provisioning of the
   network key and unicast address.  To be expanded.

3.5.  Fast IDentity Online (FIDO) alliance

   The Fast IDentity Online Alliance (FIDO) is currently specifying an
   automatic onboarding protocol for IoT devices [fidospec].  The goal
   of this protocol is to provide a new IoT device with information for
   interacting securely with an online IoT platform.  This protocol
   allows owners to choose the IoT platform for their devices at a late
   stage in the device lifecyle.  The draft specification refers to this
   feature as "late binding".

   The FIDO IoT protocol itself is composed of one Device Initialization
   (DI) protocol and 3 Transfer of Ownership (TO) protocols TO0, TO1,
   TO2.  Protocol messages are encoded in Concise Binary Object
   Representation (CBOR) [RFC8949] and can be transported over
   application layer protocols such as Constrained Application Protocol
   (CoAP) [RFC7252] or directly over TCP, Bluetooth etc.  FIDO IoT
   however assumes that the device already has IP connectivity to a
   rendezvous server.  Establishing this initial IP connectivity is
   explicitly stated as "out-of-scope" but the draft specification hints
   at the usage of Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) [RFC7230] proxies
   for IP networks and other forms of tunneling for non-IP networks.

   The specification only provides a non-normative example of the DI
   protocol which must be executed in the factory during device
   manufacture.  This protocol embeds initial ownership and
   manufacturing credentials into Restricted Operation Environment (ROE)
   on the device.  The initial information embedded also includes a
   unique device identifier (called as GUID in the specification).
   After DI is executed, the manufacturer has an ownership voucher which
   is passed along the supply chain to the device owner.

   When a device is unboxed and powered on by the new owner, the device
   discovers a network-local or an Internet-based rendezvous server.
   Protocols (TO0, TO1, and TO2) between the device, the rendezvous
   server, and the new owner (as the owner onboarding service) ensure
   that the device and the new owner are able to authenticate each
   other.  Thereafter, the new owner establishes cryptographic control
   of the device and provides it with credentials of the IoT platform
   which the device should used.



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3.6.  Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

   In this section, we will look at some IETF standards and draft
   specifications related to IoT bootstrapping.

3.6.1.  Enrollment over Secure Transport (EST)

   Enrollment over Secure Transport (EST) [RFC7030] defines a profile of
   Certificate Management over CMS (CMC) [RFC5272].  EST relies on
   Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and Transport Layer Security (TLS)
   for exchanging CMC messages and allows client devices to obtain
   client certificates and associated Certification Authority (CA)
   certificates.  A companion specification for using EST over secure
   CoAP has also been standardized [I-D.ietf-ace-coap-est].  EST assumes
   that some initial information is already distributed so that EST
   client and servers can perform mutual authentication before
   continuing with protocol.  [RFC7030] further defines "Bootstrap
   Distribution of CA Certificates" which allows minimally configured
   EST clients to obtain initial trust anchors.  It relies on human
   users to verify information such as the CA certificate "fingerprint"
   received over the unauthenticated TLS connection setup.  After
   successful completion of this bootstrapping step, clients can proceed
   to the enrollment step during which they obtain client certificates
   and associated CA certificates.

3.6.2.  Bootstrapping Remote Secure Key Infrastructures (BRSKI)

   The ANIMA working group is working on a bootstrapping solution for
   devices that relies on 802.1AR vendor certificates called
   Bootstrapping Remote Secure Key Infrastructures (BRSKI)
   [I-D.ietf-anima-bootstrapping-keyinfra].  In addition to vendor
   installed IEEE 802.1AR certificates, a vendor based service on the
   Internet is required.  Before being authenticated, a new device only
   needs link-local connectivity, and does not require a routable
   address.  When a vendor provides an Internet based service, devices
   can be forced to join only specific domains.  The document highlights
   that the described solution is aimed in general at non-constrained
   (i.e. class 2+ defined in [RFC7228]) devices operating in a non-
   challenged network.  It claims to scale to thousands of devices
   located in hostile environments, such as ISP provided CPE devices
   which are drop-shipped to the end user.

3.6.3.  Secure Zero Touch Provisioning

   [RFC8572] defines a bootstrapping strategy for enabling devices to
   securely obtain all the configuration information with no installer
   input, beyond the actual physical placement and connection of cables.
   Their goal is to enable a secure NETCONF [RFC6241] or RESTCONF



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   [RFC8040] connection to the deployment specific network management
   system (NMS).  This bootstrapping method requires the devices to be
   configured with trust anchors in the form of X.509 certificates.
   [RFC8572] is similar to BRSKI based on [RFC8366].

3.6.4.  Nimble out-of-band authentication for EAP (EAP-NOOB)

   EAP-NOOB [I-D.ietf-emu-eap-noob] defines an EAP method where the
   authentication is based on a user-assisted out-of-band (OOB) channel
   between the server and peer.  It is intended as a generic
   bootstrapping solution for IoT devices which have no pre-configured
   authentication credentials and which are not yet registered on the
   authentication server.  This method claims to be more generic than
   most ad-hoc bootstrapping solutions in that it supports many types of
   OOB channels.  The exact in-band messages and OOB message contents
   are specified and not the OOB channel details.  EAP-NOOB also
   supports IoT devices with only output (e.g. display) or only input
   (e.g. camera).  It makes combined use of both secrecy and integrity
   of the OOB channel for more robust security than the ad-hoc
   solutions.

4.  Comparison

   There are several stages before a device becomes fully operational.
   This typically involves establishing some initial trust after which
   credentials and other parameters are configured.  For DPP,
   bootstrapping is the first step before authentication and
   provisioning of credentials can occur.  For EST, bootstrapping
   happens as the first step when the client devices have no
   certificates available for starting enrollment.  Provisioning/
   configuring are terms used for providing additional information to
   devices before they are fully operational.  For example, credentials
   are provisioned onto the device.  But before credential provisioning,
   a device is bootstrapped and authenticated.  Some protocols may only
   deal with parts of the process.  For example, TLS maybe used for
   authentication after bootstrapping.  A separate device management
   protocol then may run over this TLS tunnel for provisioning
   operational information and credentials.

5.  Recommendations

   o  It is recommended that the IETF use the term "bootstrapping" for
      the initial (authentication) step that a device must perform.
      Bootstrapping will likely happen before the device has obtained
      full network connectivity.

   o  It is recommended to use the term "provisioning"/"configuring" for
      the process of providing necessary information to a device to



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      become operational after initial authentication is complete.  As
      is evident from above, provisioning and configuring may include
      bootstrapping and authentication as a sub protocol.

   o  IETF specifications should aim to avoid mixing terminology or
      adding new terminology for better consistency.

6.  Classification of available mechanisms

   Given the large number of bootstrapping protocols and related
   specifications, it can be helpful to classify them.  We categorize
   the available bootstrapping solutions into the following major
   classes:

   o  Managed methods: These methods rely on pre-established trust
      relations and authentication credentials.  They typically utilize
      centralized servers for authentication, although several such
      servers may join to form a distributed federation.  Example
      methods include Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP)
      [RFC3748], Generic Bootstrapping Architecture (GBA) [TS33220],
      Kerberos [RFC4120], Bootstrapping Remote Secure Key
      Infrastructures (BRSKI) and vendor certificates [vendorcert].  EAP
      Transport Layer Security EAP-TLS [I-D.ietf-emu-eap-tls13] for
      instance assumes that both the client and the server have
      certificates to authenticate each other.  Based on this
      authentication, the server authorizes the client for network
      access.  The Eduroam federation [RFC7593] uses a network of such
      servers to support roaming clients.

   o  Opportunistic and leap-of-faith methods: In these methods, rather
      than verifying the initial authentication, the continuity of the
      initial identity or connection is verified.  Some of these methods
      assume that the attacker is not present during the initial setup.
      Example methods include Secure Neighbor Discovery (SEND) [RFC3971]
      and Cryptographically Generated Addresses (CGA) [RFC3972], Wifi
      Protected Setup (WPS) push button [wps], and Secure Shell (SSH)
      [RFC4253].

   o  Peer-to-Peer (P2P) and Ad-hoc methods: These bootstrapping methods
      do not rely on any pre-established credentials.  Instead, the
      bootstrapping protocol results in credentials being established
      for subsequent secure communication.  Such bootstrapping methods
      typically perform an unauthenticated Diffie-Hellman exchange [dh]
      and then use an out-of-band (OOB) communication channel to prevent
      a man-in-the-middle attack (MitM).  Various secure device pairing
      protocols fall in this category.  Based on how the OOB channel is
      used, the P2P methods can be further classified into two sub
      categories:



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      *  Key derivation: Contextual information received over the OOB
         channel is used for shared key derivation.  For example,
         [proximate] relies on the common radio environment of the
         devices being paired to derive the shared secret which would
         then be used for secure communication.

      *  Key confirmation: A Diffie-Hellman key exchange occurs over the
         insecure network and the established key is used to
         authenticate with the help of the OOB channel.  For example,
         Bluetooth simple pairing [SimplePairing] use the OOB channel to
         ask the user to compare pins and approve the completed
         exchange.

   o  Hybrid methods: Most deployed methods are hybrid and use
      components from both managed and ad-hoc methods.  For instance,
      central management may be used for devices after they have been
      registered with the server using ad-hoc registration methods.

   It is important to note here that categorization of different methods
   is not always easy or clear.  For example, all the opportunistic and
   leap-of-faith methods become managed methods after the initial
   vulnerability window.  The choice of bootstrapping method used for
   devices depends heavily on the business case.  Questions that may
   govern the choice include: What third parties are available?  Who
   wants to retain control or avoid work?  In each category, there are
   many different methods of secure bootstrapping available.  The choice
   of the method may also be governed by the type of device being
   bootstrapped.

7.  IoT Device Bootstrapping Methods

   In this section we look at additional bootstrapping protocols for IoT
   devices which are not covered in Section 3.  Protocols already
   covered in Section 3 however are mentioned in their respective
   classes.  This list is non-exhaustive.

7.1.  Managed Methods

   EAP-TLS is a widely used EAP method for network access authentication
   [I-D.ietf-emu-eap-tls13].  It requires certificate-based mutual
   authentication and a public key infrastructure.  The ZigBee Alliance
   has specified an IPv6 stack for IEEE 802.15.4 [IEEE802.15.4] devices
   used in smart meters developed primarily for SEP 2.0 (Smart Energy
   Profile) application layer traffic [SEP2.0].  The ZigBee IP stack
   uses EAP-TLS for secure bootstrapping of devices.

   EAP-PSK [RFC4764] is another EAP method that realizes mutual
   authentication and session key derivation using a Pre-Shared Key



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   (PSK).  Given the light-weight nature of EAP-PSK, it can be suitable
   for resource-constrained devices.  However, secure distribution of a
   large number of PSKs can be challenging.

   CoAP-EAP [I-D.marin-ace-wg-coap-eap] defines a bootstrapping service
   for IoT.  The authors propose transporting EAP over CoAP [RFC7252]
   for the constrained link, and communication with AAA infrastructures
   in the non-constrained link.  While the draft discusses the use of
   EAP-PSK, the authors claim that they are specifying a new EAP lower
   layer and any EAP method which results in generation is suitable.

   Protocol for Carrying Authentication for Network Access (PANA)
   [RFC5191] is a network layer protocol with which a node can
   authenticate itself to gain access to the network.  PANA does not
   define a new authentication protocol and rather uses EAP over User
   Datagram Protocol (UDP) for authentication.

   Colin O'Flynn [I-D.oflynn-core-bootstrapping] proposes the use of
   PANA for secure bootstrapping of resource constrained devices.  He
   demonstrates how a 6LowPAN Border Router (PANA Authentication Agent
   (PAA)) can authenticate the identity of a joining constrained device
   (PANA Client).  Once the constrained device has been successfully
   authenticated, the border router can also provide network and
   security parameters to the joining device.

   Hernandez-Ramos et al. [panaiot] also use EAP-TLS over PANA for
   secure bootstrapping of smart objects.  They extend their
   bootstrapping scheme for configuring additional keys that are used
   for secure group communication.

   Generic Bootstrapping Architecture (GBA) is another bootstrapping
   method that falls in centralized category.  GBA is part of the 3GPP
   standard [TS33220] and is based on 3GPP Authentication and Key
   Agreement (3GPP AKA).  GBA is an application independent mechanism to
   provide a client application (running on the User equipment (UE)) and
   any application server with a shared session secret.  This shared
   session secret can subsequently be used to authenticate and protect
   the communication between the client application and the application
   server.  GBA authentication is based on the permanent secret shared
   between the UE's Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC), for
   example SIM card, and the corresponding profile information stored
   within the cellular network operator's Home Subscriber System (HSS)
   database.  [I-D.sethi-gba-constrained] describes a resource-
   constrained adaptation of GBA for IoT.

   The four bootstrapping modes specified by the Open Mobile Alliance
   (OMA) Light-weight M2M (LwM2M) standard require some sort of pre-




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   provisioned credentials on the device.  All the four modes are
   examples of managed bootstrapping methods.

   The Kerberos protocol [RFC4120] is a network authentication protocol
   that allows several endpoints to communicate over an insecure
   network.  Kerberos relies on a symmetric cryptography scheme and
   requires a trusted third party, that guarantees the identities of the
   various actors.  It relies on the use of "tickets" for nodes to prove
   identity to one another in a secure manner.  There has been research
   work on using Kerberos for IoT devices [kerberosiot].

   It is also important to mention some of the work done on implicit
   certificates and identity-based cryptographic schemes [himmo],
   [implicit].  While these are interesting and novel schemes that can
   be a part of securely bootstrapping devices, at this point, it is
   hard to speculate on whether such schemes would see large-scale
   deployment in the future.

7.1.1.  Bootstrapping in LPWAN

   Low Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) encompasses a wide variety of
   technologies whose link-layer characteristics are severely
   constrained in comparison to other typical IoT link-layer
   technologies such as Bluetooth or IEEE 802.15.4.  While some LPWAN
   technologies rely on proprietary bootstrapping solutions which are
   not publicly accessible, others simply ignore the challenge of
   bootstrapping and key distribution.  In this section, we discuss the
   bootstrapping methods used by LPWAN technologies covered in
   [RFC8376].

   o  LoRaWAN [LoRaWAN] describes its own protocol to authenticate nodes
      before allowing them join a LoRaWAN network.  This process is
      called as joining and it is based on pre-shared keys (called
      AppKeys in the standard).  The joining procedure comprises only
      one exchange (join-request and join-accept) between the joining
      node and the network server.  There are several adaptations to
      this joining procedure that allow network servers to delegate
      authentication and authorization to a backend AAA infrastructure
      [RFC2904].

   o  Wi-SUN Alliance Field Area Network (FAN) uses IEEE 802.1X and EAP-
      TLS for network access authentication.  It performs a 4-way
      handshake to establish a session keys after EAP-TLS
      authentication.

   o  NB-IoT relies on the traditional 3GPP mutual authentication scheme
      based on a shared-secret in the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
      of the device and the mobile operator.



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   o  Sigfox security is based on unique device identifiers and
      cryptographic keys.  As stated in [RFC8376], although the
      algorithms and keying details are not publicly available, there is
      sufficient information to indicate that bootstrapping in Sigfox is
      based on pre-established credentials between the device and the
      Sigfox network.

   From the above, it is clear that all LPWAN technologies rely on pre-
   provisioned credentials for authentication between a new device and
   the network.  Thus, all of them can be categorized as managed
   bootstrapping methods.

7.2.  Peer-to-Peer or Ad-hoc Methods

   While managed methods are viable for many IoT devices, they may not
   be suitable or desirable in all scenarios.  All the managed methods
   assume that some credentials are provisioned into the device.  These
   credentials may be in the device micro-controller or in a replaceable
   smart card such as a SIM card.  The methods also sometimes assume
   that the manufacturer embeds these credentials during the device
   manufacture on the factory floor.  However, in many cases the
   manufacturer may not have sufficient incentive to do this.  In other
   scenarios, it may be hard to completely trust and rely on the device
   manufacturer to securely perform this task.  Therefore, many times,
   P2P or Ad-hoc methods of bootstrapping are used.  We discuss a few
   example next.

   P2P or ad-hoc bootstrapping methods are used for establishing keys
   and credential information for secure communication without any pre-
   provisioned information.  These bootstrapping mechanisms typically
   rely on an out-of-band (OOB) channel in order to prevent man-in-the-
   middle (MitM) attacks.  P2P and ad-hoc methods have typically been
   used for securely pairing personal computing devices such as smart
   phones. [devicepairing] provides a survey of such secure device
   pairing methods.  Many original pairing schemes required the user to
   enter the same key string or authentication code to both devices or
   to compare and approve codes displayed by the devices.  While these
   methods can provide reasonable security, they require user
   interaction that is relatively unnatural and often considered a
   nuisance.  Thus, there is ongoing research for more natural ways of
   pairing devices.  To reduce the amount of user-interaction required
   in the pairing process, several proposals use contextual or location-
   dependent information, or natural user input such as sound or
   movement, for device pairing [proximate].

   The local association created between two devices may later be used
   for connecting/introducing one of the devices to a centralized
   server.  Such methods would however be classified as hybrids.



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   EAP-NOOB [I-D.ietf-emu-eap-noob] is an example of P2P and ad-hoc
   bootstrapping method that establishes a security association between
   an IoT device (node) and an online server (unlike pairing two devices
   for local connections over WiFi or Bluetooth).

   Thread Group commissioning [threadcommissioning] introduces a two
   phased process i.e. Petitioning and Joining.  Entities involved are
   leader, joiner, commissioner, joiner router and border router.
   Leader is the first device in Thread network that must be
   commissioned using out-of-band process and is used to inject correct
   user generated Commissioning Credentials (can be changed later) into
   Thread Network.  Joiner is the node that intends to get authenticated
   and authorized on Thread Network.  Commissioner is either within the
   Thread Network (Native) or connected with Thread Network via a WLAN
   (External).

   Under some topologies, Joiner Router and Border Router facilitate the
   Joiner node to reach Native and External Commissioner, respectively.
   Petitioning begins before Joining process and is used to grant sole
   commissioning authority to a Commissioner.  After an authorized
   Commissioner is designated, eligible thread devices can join network.
   Pair-wise key is shared between Commissioner and Joiner, network
   parameters (such as network name, security policy, etc.,) are sent
   out securely (using pair-wise key) by Joiner Router to Joiner for
   letting Joiner to join the Thread Network.  Entities involved in
   Joining process depends on system topology i.e. location of
   Commissioner and Joiner.  Thread networks only operate using IPv6.
   Thread devices can devise GUAs (Global Unicast Addresses) [RFC4291].
   Provision also exist via Border Router, for Thread device to acquire
   individual global address by means of DHCPv6 or using SLAAC
   (Stateless Address Autoconfiguration) address derived with advertised
   network prefix.

7.3.  Leap-of-faith/Opportunistic Methods

   Bergmann et al. [simplekey] develop a secure bootstrapping mechanism
   that does not rely on pre-provisioned credentials using resurrecting-
   duckling imprinting scheme.  Their bootstrapping protocol involves
   three distinct phases: discover (the duckling node searches for
   network nodes that can act as mother node), imprint (the mother node
   imprints a shared secret establishing a secure channel once a
   positive response is received for the imprinting request) and
   configure (additional configuration information such as network
   prefix and default gateway are configured).  In this model for
   bootstrapping, a small initial vulnerability window is acceptable and
   can be mitigated using techniques such as a Faraday Cage (securing
   the communication physically) to protect the environment of the
   mother and duck nodes, though this may be inconvenient for the user.



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7.4.  Hybrid Methods

   [RFC7250] defines how raw public keys can be used for mutual
   authentication of devices and servers.  The extension specified in
   [RFC7250] simplifies client_certificate_type and
   server_certificate_type to carry only SubjectPublicKeyInfo structure
   with the raw public key instead of many other parameters found in
   typical X.509 version 3 certificates.  Each side validates the keys
   received with pre-configured values stored.  Using raw public keys
   for bootstrapping can be seen as a hybrid method.  This is because it
   generally requires an out-of-band (OOB) step (P2P/Ad-hoc) where the
   raw public keys [RFC7250] are provided to the authenticating
   entities, after which the actual authentication occurs online
   (managed).  CoAP already provides support for using raw public keys
   (see Section 9.1.3.2. of [RFC7252])

8.  Security Considerations

   This draft does not take any posture on the security properties of
   the different bootstrapping protocols discussed.  Specific security
   considerations of bootstrapping protocols are present in the
   respective specifications.

   Nonetheless, we briefly discuss some important security aspects which
   are not fully explored in various specifications.

   Firstly, an IoT system may deal with authorization for resources and
   services separately from bootstrapping and authentication in terms of
   timing as well as protocols.  As an example, two resource-constrained
   devices A and B may perform mutual authentication using credentials
   provided by an offline third-party X before device A obtains
   authorization for running a particular application on device B from
   an online third-party Y.  In some cases, authentication and
   authorization maybe tightly coupled, e.g., successful authentication
   also means successful authorization.

   Secondly, re-bootstrapping of IoT devices may be required since keys
   have limited lifetimes and devices may be lost or resold.  Protocols
   and systems must have adequate provisions for revocation and re-
   bootstrapping.  Re-bootstrapping must be as secure as the initial
   bootstrapping regardless of whether this re-bootstrapping is done
   manually or automatically over the network.

   Lastly, some IoT networks use a common group key for multicast and
   broadcast traffic.  As the number of devices in a network increase
   over time, a common group key may not be scalable and the same
   network may need to be split into separate groups with different
   keys.  Bootstrapping and provisioning protocols may need appropriate



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   mechanisms for identifying and distributing keys to the current
   member devices of each group.

9.  IANA Considerations

   There are no IANA considerations for this document.

10.  Acknowledgements

   We would like to thank Tuomas Aura, Hannes Tschofenig, and Michael
   Richardson for providing extensive feedback as well as Rafa Marin-
   Lopez for his support.

11.  Informative References

   [devicepairing]
              Mirzadeh, S., Cruickshank, H., and R. Tafazolli, "Secure
              Device Pairing: A Survey", IEEE Communications Surveys and
              Tutorials , pp. 17-40, 2014.

   [dh]       Diffie, W. and M. Hellman, "New directions in
              cryptography", IEEE Transactions on Information Theory ,
              vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 644-654, 1976.

   [dpp]      Wi-Fi Alliance, "Wi-Fi Device Provisioning Protocol
              (DPP)", Wi-Fi Alliance , 2018, <https://www.wi-
              fi.org/download.php?file=/sites/default/files/private/
              Device_Provisioning_Protocol_Specification_v1.1_1.pdf>.

   [fidospec]
              Fast Identity Online Alliance, "FIDO IoT Spec", Fido
              Alliance , August 2020, <https://fidoalliance.org/specs/
              internet-of-things/FIDO-IoT-spec.html>.

   [himmo]    Garcia-Morchon, O., Rietman, R., Sharma, S., Tolhuizen,
              L., and J. Torre-Arce, "DTLS-HIMMO: Efficiently Securing a
              Post-Quantum World with a Fully-Collusion Resistant KPS",
              Submitted to NIST Workshop on Cybersecurity in a Post-
              Quantum World , version 20141225:065757, December 2014,
              <https://eprint.iacr.org/2014/1008>.

   [I-D.ietf-ace-coap-est]
              Stok, P., Kampanakis, P., Richardson, M., and S. Raza,
              "EST over secure CoAP (EST-coaps)", draft-ietf-ace-coap-
              est-18 (work in progress), January 2020.






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   [I-D.ietf-anima-bootstrapping-keyinfra]
              Pritikin, M., Richardson, M., Eckert, T., Behringer, M.,
              and K. Watsen, "Bootstrapping Remote Secure Key
              Infrastructures (BRSKI)", draft-ietf-anima-bootstrapping-
              keyinfra-45 (work in progress), November 2020.

   [I-D.ietf-emu-eap-noob]
              Aura, T., Sethi, M., and A. Peltonen, "Nimble out-of-band
              authentication for EAP (EAP-NOOB)", draft-ietf-emu-eap-
              noob-03 (work in progress), December 2020.

   [I-D.ietf-emu-eap-tls13]
              Mattsson, J. and M. Sethi, "Using EAP-TLS with TLS 1.3",
              draft-ietf-emu-eap-tls13-13 (work in progress), November
              2020.

   [I-D.marin-ace-wg-coap-eap]
              Marin-Lopez, R. and D. Garcia-Carrillo, "EAP-based
              Authentication Service for CoAP", draft-marin-ace-wg-coap-
              eap-07 (work in progress), January 2021.

   [I-D.oflynn-core-bootstrapping]
              Sarikaya, B., Ohba, Y., Cao, Z., and R. Cragie, "Security
              Bootstrapping of Resource-Constrained Devices", draft-
              oflynn-core-bootstrapping-03 (work in progress), November
              2010.

   [I-D.sethi-gba-constrained]
              Sethi, M., Lehtovirta, V., and P. Salmela, "Using Generic
              Bootstrapping Architecture with Constrained Devices",
              draft-sethi-gba-constrained-01 (work in progress),
              February 2014.

   [IEEE802.15.4]
              "IEEE Std. 802.15.4-2015", April 2016,
              <http://standards.ieee.org/findstds/
              standard/802.15.4-2015.html>.

   [implicit]
              Porambage, P., Schmitt, C., Kumar, P., Gurtov, A., and M.
              Ylianttila, "Pauthkey: A pervasive authentication protocol
              and key establishment scheme for wireless sensor networks
              in distributed iot applications", International Journal of
              Distributed Sensor Networks , Hindawi Publishing
              Corporation , 2014.

   [iotwork]  European Commission FP7, "IoT@Work bootstrapping
              architecture Deliverable D2.2", June 2011.



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   [kerberosiot]
              Hardjono, T., "Kerberos for Internet-of-Things", February
              2014, <https://kit.mit.edu/sites/default/files/documents/
              Kerberos_Internet_of%20Things.pdf>.

   [LoRaWAN]  Sornin, N., Luis, M., Eirich, T., and T. Kramp, "LoRa
              Specification V1.0", January 2015, <https://www.lora-
              alliance.org/portals/0/specs/
              LoRaWAN%20Specification%201R0.pdf>.

   [ocf]      Open Connectivity Foundation, "OCF Security
              Specification", Open Connectivitiy Foundation , June 2017,
              <https://openconnectivity.org/specs/
              OCF_Security_Specification_v1.0.0.pdf>.

   [oma]      Open Mobile Alliance, "Lightweight Machine to Machine
              Technical Specification: Core", Open Mobile Alliance ,
              November 2020,
              <www.openmobilealliance.org/release/LightweightM2M/
              V1_2-20201110-A/OMA-TS-LightweightM2M_Core-
              V1_2-20201110-A.pdf>.

   [panaiot]  Hernandez-Ramos, J., Carrillo, D., Marin-Lopez, R., and A.
              Skarmeta, "Dynamic Security Credentials PANA-based
              Provisioning for IoT Smart Objects", 2nd World Forum on
              Internet of Things (WF-IoT) , IEEE , 2015.

   [proximate]
              Mathur, S., Miller, R., Varshavsky, A., Trappe, W., and N.
              Mandayam, "Proximate: proximity-based secure pairing using
              ambient wireless signals.", Proceedings of MobiSys
              International Conference , pp. 211-224, June 2011.

   [RFC2119]  Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
              Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC2119, March 1997,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2119>.

   [RFC2904]  Vollbrecht, J., Calhoun, P., Farrell, S., Gommans, L.,
              Gross, G., de Bruijn, B., de Laat, C., Holdrege, M., and
              D. Spence, "AAA Authorization Framework", RFC 2904,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC2904, August 2000,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2904>.

   [RFC3748]  Aboba, B., Blunk, L., Vollbrecht, J., Carlson, J., and H.
              Levkowetz, Ed., "Extensible Authentication Protocol
              (EAP)", RFC 3748, DOI 10.17487/RFC3748, June 2004,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3748>.



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   [RFC3971]  Arkko, J., Ed., Kempf, J., Zill, B., and P. Nikander,
              "SEcure Neighbor Discovery (SEND)", RFC 3971,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC3971, March 2005,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3971>.

   [RFC3972]  Aura, T., "Cryptographically Generated Addresses (CGA)",
              RFC 3972, DOI 10.17487/RFC3972, March 2005,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3972>.

   [RFC4120]  Neuman, C., Yu, T., Hartman, S., and K. Raeburn, "The
              Kerberos Network Authentication Service (V5)", RFC 4120,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC4120, July 2005,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4120>.

   [RFC4253]  Ylonen, T. and C. Lonvick, Ed., "The Secure Shell (SSH)
              Transport Layer Protocol", RFC 4253, DOI 10.17487/RFC4253,
              January 2006, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4253>.

   [RFC4291]  Hinden, R. and S. Deering, "IP Version 6 Addressing
              Architecture", RFC 4291, DOI 10.17487/RFC4291, February
              2006, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4291>.

   [RFC4764]  Bersani, F. and H. Tschofenig, "The EAP-PSK Protocol: A
              Pre-Shared Key Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP)
              Method", RFC 4764, DOI 10.17487/RFC4764, January 2007,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4764>.

   [RFC5191]  Forsberg, D., Ohba, Y., Ed., Patil, B., Tschofenig, H.,
              and A. Yegin, "Protocol for Carrying Authentication for
              Network Access (PANA)", RFC 5191, DOI 10.17487/RFC5191,
              May 2008, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5191>.

   [RFC5272]  Schaad, J. and M. Myers, "Certificate Management over CMS
              (CMC)", RFC 5272, DOI 10.17487/RFC5272, June 2008,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5272>.

   [RFC6241]  Enns, R., Ed., Bjorklund, M., Ed., Schoenwaelder, J., Ed.,
              and A. Bierman, Ed., "Network Configuration Protocol
              (NETCONF)", RFC 6241, DOI 10.17487/RFC6241, June 2011,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6241>.

   [RFC7030]  Pritikin, M., Ed., Yee, P., Ed., and D. Harkins, Ed.,
              "Enrollment over Secure Transport", RFC 7030,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7030, October 2013,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7030>.






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   [RFC7228]  Bormann, C., Ersue, M., and A. Keranen, "Terminology for
              Constrained-Node Networks", RFC 7228,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7228, May 2014,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7228>.

   [RFC7230]  Fielding, R., Ed. and J. Reschke, Ed., "Hypertext Transfer
              Protocol (HTTP/1.1): Message Syntax and Routing",
              RFC 7230, DOI 10.17487/RFC7230, June 2014,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7230>.

   [RFC7250]  Wouters, P., Ed., Tschofenig, H., Ed., Gilmore, J.,
              Weiler, S., and T. Kivinen, "Using Raw Public Keys in
              Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport
              Layer Security (DTLS)", RFC 7250, DOI 10.17487/RFC7250,
              June 2014, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7250>.

   [RFC7252]  Shelby, Z., Hartke, K., and C. Bormann, "The Constrained
              Application Protocol (CoAP)", RFC 7252,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7252, June 2014,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7252>.

   [RFC7593]  Wierenga, K., Winter, S., and T. Wolniewicz, "The eduroam
              Architecture for Network Roaming", RFC 7593,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7593, September 2015,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7593>.

   [RFC8040]  Bierman, A., Bjorklund, M., and K. Watsen, "RESTCONF
              Protocol", RFC 8040, DOI 10.17487/RFC8040, January 2017,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8040>.

   [RFC8174]  Leiba, B., "Ambiguity of Uppercase vs Lowercase in RFC
              2119 Key Words", BCP 14, RFC 8174, DOI 10.17487/RFC8174,
              May 2017, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8174>.

   [RFC8366]  Watsen, K., Richardson, M., Pritikin, M., and T. Eckert,
              "A Voucher Artifact for Bootstrapping Protocols",
              RFC 8366, DOI 10.17487/RFC8366, May 2018,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8366>.

   [RFC8376]  Farrell, S., Ed., "Low-Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN)
              Overview", RFC 8376, DOI 10.17487/RFC8376, May 2018,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8376>.

   [RFC8572]  Watsen, K., Farrer, I., and M. Abrahamsson, "Secure Zero
              Touch Provisioning (SZTP)", RFC 8572,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC8572, April 2019,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8572>.




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   [RFC8949]  Bormann, C. and P. Hoffman, "Concise Binary Object
              Representation (CBOR)", STD 94, RFC 8949,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC8949, December 2020,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8949>.

   [SEP2.0]   ZigBee Alliance, "ZigBee IP Specification", March 2014,
              <hhttp://www.zigbee.org/non-menu-pages/zigbee-ip-
              download/>.

   [Sethi14]  Sethi, M., Oat, E., Di Francesco, M., and T. Aura, "Secure
              Bootstrapping of Cloud-Managed Ubiquitous Displays",
              Proceedings of ACM International Joint Conference on
              Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing (UbiComp 2014), pp.
              739-750, Seattle, USA , September 2014,
              <http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2632048.2632049>.

   [simpleconn]
              Wi-Fi Alliance, "Wi-Fi Simple Configuration", Wi-Fi
              Alliance , 2019, <https://www.wi-
              fi.org/download.php?file=/sites/default/files/private/Wi-F
              i_Simple_Configuration_Technical_Specification_v2.0.7.pdf>
              .

   [simplekey]
              Bergmann, O., Gerdes, S., and C. Bormann, "Simple Keys for
              Simple Smart Objects", Smart Object Security Workshop,
              IETF 83 , March 2012.

   [SimplePairing]
              Bluetooth, SIG, "Simple pairing whitepaper", Technical
              report , 2007.

   [threadcommissioning]
              Thread Group, "Thread Commissioning", Thread Group, Inc. ,
              2015.

   [TS33220]  3GPP, "3rd Generation Partnership Project; Technical
              Specification Group Services and System Aspects; Generic
              Authentication Architecture (GAA); Generic Bootstrapping
              Architecture (GBA) (Release 14)", December 2016,
              <http://www.3gpp.org/DynaReport/33220.htm>.

   [vendorcert]
              IEEE std. 802.1ar-2009, "Standard for local and
              metropolitan area networks - secure device identity",
              December 2009.





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   [vermillard]
              Vermillard, J., "Bootstrapping device security with
              lightweight M2M", Appeared on blog at medium.com ,
              February 2015.

   [wps]      Wi-Fi Alliance, "Wi-fi protected setup", Wi-Fi Alliance ,
              2007.

Authors' Addresses

   Mohit Sethi
   Ericsson
   Hirsalantie 11
   Jorvas  02420
   Finland

   Email: mohit@piuha.net


   Behcet Sarikaya
   Denpel Informatique

   Email: sarikaya@ieee.org


   Dan Garcia-Carrillo
   University of Oviedo
   Oviedo  33207
   Spain

   Email: garciadan@uniovi.es




















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