Internet DRAFT - draft-arkko-abcd-distributed-resolver-selection

draft-arkko-abcd-distributed-resolver-selection







Network Working Group                                           J. Arkko
Internet-Draft                                                  Ericsson
Intended status: Informational                                M. Thomson
Expires: September 11, 2020                                      Mozilla
                                                               T. Hardie
                                                                  Google
                                                          March 10, 2020


      Selecting Resolvers from a Set of Distributed DNS Resolvers
           draft-arkko-abcd-distributed-resolver-selection-01

Abstract

   This memo discusses the use of a set of different DNS resolvers to
   reduce privacy problems related to resolvers learning the Internet
   usage patterns of their clients.

Status of This Memo

   This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the
   provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79.

   Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
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   This Internet-Draft will expire on September 11, 2020.

Copyright Notice

   Copyright (c) 2020 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
   document authors.  All rights reserved.

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   the Trust Legal Provisions and are provided without warranty as
   described in the Simplified BSD License.

Table of Contents

   1.  Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   2
   2.  Operational Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   4
   3.  Goals and Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   4
   4.  Query distribution strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   6
     4.1.  Client-based  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   6
       4.1.1.  Analysis of client-based selection  . . . . . . . . .   6
       4.1.2.  Enhancements to client-based selection  . . . . . . .   7
     4.2.  Name-based  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   7
       4.2.1.  Name reduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   8
   5.  Early conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   9
     5.1.  Analysis conclusions  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   9
     5.2.  Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   9
     5.3.  Poor distribution strategies  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   9
   6.  Effects of query distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  10
     6.1.  Caching considerations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  10
     6.2.  Consistency considerations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  10
     6.3.  Resolver load distribution and failover . . . . . . . . .  11
     6.4.  Query performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  11
     6.5.  Debugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  11
   7.  Further work  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  11
   8.  References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  12
     8.1.  Normative References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  12
     8.2.  Informative References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  12
     8.3.  URIs  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  13
   Appendix A.  Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  13
   Authors' Addresses  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  13

1.  Introduction

   The DNS [DNS] is a complex system with many different security
   issues, challenges, deployment models and usage patterns.  This
   document focuses on one narrow aspect within DNS and its security.

   Traditionally, systems are configured with a single DNS recursive
   resolver, or a set of primary and alternate recursive resolvers.
   Recursive resolver services are offered by organisations such as
   enterprises, ISPs, and global providers.  Even when clients use
   alternate recursive resolvers, they are typically all provided by the
   same organisation.

   The resolvers will learn the Internet usage patterns of their
   clients.  A client might decide to trust a particular recursive
   resolver with information about DNS queries.  However, it is



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   difficult or impossible to provide any guarantees about data handling
   practices in the general case.  And even if a service can be trusted
   to respect privacy with respect to handling of query data, legal and
   commercial pressures or surveillance activity could result in misuse
   of data.  Similarly, outside attacks may occur towards any DNS
   services.  For a service with many clients, these risks are
   particularly undesirable.

   This memo discusses whether DNS clients can improve their privacy
   through the potential use of a set of multiple recursive resolver
   services.  The goal is indeed an improvement only.  There is no
   expectation that it would be possible to have no part of the DNS
   infrastructure aware of what queries are being made, but perhaps
   there are mitigations that would make possible information collection
   from the DNS infrastructure harder.

   It should be understood that this is a narrow aspect within a bigger
   set of topics even within privacy issues around DNS, let alone other
   security issues, deployment models, or the many protocol questions
   within DNS.  Some of these other topics include detecting the
   tampering DNS query responses [DNSSEC], encrypting DNS queries [DOT]
   [DOH], application-specific DNS resolution mechanisms, or centralised
   deployment models.  Those other topics are not covered in this memo
   and need to be dealt with elsewhere.

   Specifically, the scope of this memo is not limited to DNS-over-TLS
   (DOT) or DNS-over-HTTPS (DOH) deployments nor does it take a stand on
   operating system vs. application or local vs. centralized DNS
   deployment models.  This memo is intended to provide useful
   information for those that wish to consider trustworthiness of their
   recursive resolvers as a part of their privacy analysis.

   Naturally, there are some interactions between different topics.  For
   instance, privacy is affected both by what happens to data in transit
   and at the endpoints, so where privacy is a concern, one would expect
   to consider both aspects, and lack of consideration on one probably
   leads to issues that dwarf the problems that this memo can address.
   Both issues are also important aspects when considering defense again
   pervasive monitoring efforts [PMON].

   The rest of this memo is organized as follows.  Section 2 discusses
   the operational context that we imagine the multiple recursive
   resolver arrangement might be applied in.  Section 3 specifies
   security goals for a system that employs multiple recursive
   resolvers.

   One key aspect of a system using multiple resolvers would be how to
   select which particular recursive resolver to use in a particular



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   situation.  This is discussed in Section 4.  This section covers a
   number of possible strategies and further considerations for this
   selection, along with an analysis of the implications of choosing a
   particular strategy.  There are technical issues in the use of
   multiple recursive resolvers, and there are both technical and non-
   technical questions in deciding on what recursive resolvers should
   even be in the set.

   Some early recommendations are provided in Section 5.  Section 6
   discusses operational and other implications of the distributed
   approach.  Finally, Section 7 discusses potential further work in
   this area.

2.  Operational Context

   Our perspective is that of a client, choosing to either distribute or
   not distribute its queries to a set of different resolvers.  And if
   the client decides to use distribution, it can choose exactly how it
   does that.

   There are obviously additional operational aspect of this - such as
   central configuration mechanisms, resolver selection application
   choices, and so on.  But these are not covered in this memo.

   It should also be observed that the practices suggested in this memo
   are currently not widely used.  Operational and other issues may be
   discovered, such as those outlined in Section 6.

   Many of these issues need further work, but this memo aims to discuss
   the concept and analyse its impacts before dwelling into the
   technical arrangements for configuring and using this particular
   approach.

3.  Goals and Constraints

   This document aims to reduce the concentration of information about
   client activity by distributing DNS queries across different resolver
   services, for all DNS queries in the aggregate and for DNS queries
   made by individual clients.  By distributing queries in this way, the
   goal is to reduce the amount of information that any given DNS
   resolver service can acquire about client activity.  As such, creates
   a benefit for the client, but also makes these resolvers less
   valuable targets for attacks relating to that client's activity.

   Any method for distributing queries from a single client needs to
   consider these benefits with regards to the following constraints:





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   o  A careful selection of the set of trusted resolvers must be the
      first priority.  It does not make sense to add less trustworthy
      resolvers merely for the sake of distribution.  For instance,
      there is no reason to mix resolvers with good reliability or high
      degree of privacy regulation with other resolvers: just include
      the best resolvers in the set.

   o  As the goal is to reduce the amount of information given to any
      given resolver, a strategy that tells the same information to all
      resolvers is a poor one.  A design that results in replicating the
      same query toward multiple services would thus be a net privacy
      loss.  This happens quite easily over a long period of time,
      unless the distribution method is carefully designed.

      More subtle leaks arise as a result of distributing queries for
      sub-domains and even domains that are superficially unrelated,
      because these could share a commonality that might be exploited to
      link them.  For instance, some web sites use names that are appear
      unrelated to their primary name for hosting some kinds of content,
      like static images or videos.  If queries for these unrelated
      names were sent to different services, that effectively allows
      multiple resolvers to learn that the client accessed the web site.

   A distribution scheme also needs to consider stability of query
   routing over time.  A resolver can observe the absence of queries and
   infer things about the state of a client cache, which can reveal that
   queries were made to other resolvers.  In general, different queries
   for the same resolution context, such as sub-resources for a web page
   load, which have some probability of being related or linked, should
   be sent to the same resolver.  Failure to do so reveals information
   to more than one resolver.

   In effect, there are two goals in tension:

   o  split queries between as many different resolvers as possible; and

   o  reduce the spread of linkable queries across multiple resolvers.

   The need to limit replication of private information about queries
   eliminates naive distribution schemes, such as those discussed in
   Section 5.3.  The designs described in Section 4 all attempt to
   balance these different goals using different properties from the
   context of a query (Section 4.1) or the query name itself
   (Section 4.2).







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4.  Query distribution strategies

   This section introduces and analyzes several potential strategies for
   distributing queries to different resolvers.  Each strategy is
   formulated as an algorithm for choosing a resolver Ri from a set of n
   resolvers {R1, R2, ..., Rn}.

   The designs presented in Section 4 assume that the stub resolver
   performing distribution of queries has varying degrees of contextual
   information.  In general, more contextual information allows for
   finer-grained distribution of information between resolvers.

4.1.  Client-based

   The simplest strategy is to distribute each different client to a
   different resolver.  This reduces the number of users any particular
   service will know about.  However, this does little to protect an
   individual user from the aggregation of information about queries at
   the selected resolver.

   In this design clients select and consistently use the same resolver.
   This might be achieved by randomly selecting and remembering a
   resolver.  Alternatively, a resolver might be selected using
   consistent hashing that takes some conception of client identity as
   input:

   i = h(client identity) % n

   For the purposes of this determination, a client might be an entire
   device, with the selection being made at the operating system level,
   or it could be a selection made by individual applications.  In the
   extreme, an individual application might be able to partition its
   activities in a way that allows it to direct queries to multiple
   resolvers.

4.1.1.  Analysis of client-based selection

   This is a simple and effective strategy, but while it provides
   distribution of DNS queries in the aggregate, it does little to
   divide information about a particular client between resolvers.  It
   effectively only reduces the number of clients that each resolver can
   acquire information about.  This provides systemic benefit, but does
   not provide individual clients with any significant advantage as
   there is still some resolver service that has a complete view of the
   user's DNS usage patterns.

   In addition, there are specific issues where this selection method is
   used in particular deployment modes.  Where different applications



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   make independent resolver selections, activities that involve
   multiple applications can result in information about those
   activities being exposed to multiple resolvers.  For instance, an
   application could open another application for the purposes of
   handling a specific file type or to load a URL.  This could expose
   queries related to the activity as a whole to multiple resolvers.

   Making different selections at the level of a device resolves this
   issue.  But of course it is still possible that an individual who
   uses multiple devices might perform similar activities on those
   devices, but have DNS queries distributed to different resolvers,
   resulting in replicating that individual's information to multiple
   resolvers.  The individual may or may not be identifiable through
   fingerprinting of the specific set of queries being made from the
   devices.

4.1.2.  Enhancements to client-based selection

   Clients can break continuity of records by occasionally resetting
   state so that a different resolver is selected.  A client might
   choose to do this when it moves to a new network location, and may
   otherwise appear as a new client its current resolver.  But it is
   unclear if there's a sufficient advantage to breaking continuity, as
   the potential benefits are offset by the client's information being
   disclosed to several resolvers as part of performing a series of
   resets.  And it is possible that a particular individual's usage
   patterns can be identified across network locations and periods of
   using other resolvers.

   Breaking continuity is less effective if any state, in particular
   cached results, is retained across the change.  If activities that
   depend on DNS querying are continued across the change then it might
   be possible for the old resolver to make inferences about the
   activity on the new resolver, or the new resolver to make similar
   guesses about past activity.  As many modern applications provide
   session continuity features across shutdowns and crashes, this can
   mean that finding an appropriate point in time to perform a switch
   can be difficult.

4.2.  Name-based

   Clients might also additionally attempt to distribute queries based
   on the name being queried.  This results in different names going to
   different resolvers.

   A naive algorithm for name distribution uses the target name as input
   to a fixed hash:




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   i = h(queried name) % n

   However, this simplistic approach fails to prevent related queries
   from being distributed to different resolvers in several ways.  For
   instance, queries that are executed after receiving a CNAME record in
   a response will leak the same information as the original query that
   resulted in the CNAME record.  Services that use related domain names
   - such as where "example.com" uses "static.example.com" or
   "cdn.example.net" - might reveal the use of the combined service to a
   resolver that receives a query for any associated name.  In both
   cases, sensitive information is effectively replicated across
   multiple resolvers.

4.2.1.  Name reduction

   In order to reduce the effect of distributing similar names to
   different servers, a grouping mechanism might be used.  Leading
   labels in names might be erased before being input to the hashing
   algorithm.  This requires that the part of the suffix that is shared
   between different services can be identified.  For the purposes of
   ensuring that queries are consistently routed to the same resolver, a
   weak signal is likely sufficient.

   Several options for grouping domain names into equivalence sets might
   be used:

   o  The public suffix list [1] provides a manually curated list of
      shared domain suffixes.  Names can be reduced to include one label
      more than the list allows, referred to as effective top-level
      domain plus one (eTLD+1).  This reduces the number of cases where
      queries for domains under the same administrative control are sent
      to different resolvers.

   o  Services often relies on multiple domain names across different
      eTLD+1 domains.  Developing equivalence sets might be needed to
      avoid broadcasting queries to servers.  Mozilla maintains a
      manually curated equivalence list [2] for web sites that aims to
      maps the complete set of unrelated names used by services to a
      single service name.

   o  Other technologies, such as the proposed first party sets [3] or
      the abandoned DBOUND [DBOUND] provide domain owners a means to
      declare some form of equivalence for different names.

   Each of these techniques are imperfect in different ways.  They may
   also skew the distribution of queries in ways that might concentrate
   information on particular resolvers.  Moreover, resolver choice based
   solely on the name to be resolved rather than per-client information



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   reduces the anonymity set of queries sent to each resolver.  In
   contrast to a client-based strategy, attackers can predict the target
   resolver for a given name using a name-based strategy.  This may have
   implications for on-path attacker attempts to identify otherwise
   encrypted queries.  Of course, even a name-based mechanism might use
   some non-public information as well for its choice, which might
   reduce these issues.

5.  Early conclusions

5.1.  Analysis conclusions

   Both the client-based and more advanced name-based strategies may
   provide benefits.  The former may provide primarily a systemic
   benefit, while the latter may provide also some privacy benefits to
   each individual client.  However, neither strategy is perfect, and
   can leak the same information to multiple resolvers in some cases.

5.2.  Recommendations

   Both strategies are, however, likely generally beneficial in the
   common cases, and can improve the overall privacy situation.  And
   they are certainly a considerable privacy improvement over a
   situation where a large number of clients use a single resolver.

   Their use may also reduce any pressures against specific resolvers,
   as information available in these specific resolvers does not
   constitute all information about all clients.  As such, the use of
   one of these distribution strategies is tentatively recommended,
   subject to further testing, discussion, and resolving any remaining
   operational issues.

   The naive name-based strategy is, however, not recommended, and
   neither are other, even simpler strategies listed in Section 5.3.  It
   should be noted that no technique presented in this memo can defend
   against a situation where an actor such as a surveillance agency has
   access to information from all resolvers.

5.3.  Poor distribution strategies

   Random allocation to a resolver might be implemented:

   i = rand() % n

   Similar drawbacks can be seen where clients iterate over available
   resolvers:

   i = counter++ % n



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   Whether this choice is made on a per-query basis, these two methods
   eventually provide information about all queries to all resolvers
   over time.  Domain names are often queried many times over long
   periods, so queries for the same domain name will eventually be
   distributed to all resolvers.  Only one-off queries will avoid being
   distributed.

   Implementing either method at a much slower cadence might be
   effective, subject to the constraints in Section 4.1.2.  This only
   slows the distribution of information about repeated queries to all
   resolvers.

6.  Effects of query distribution

   Choosing to use more than one DNS resolver has broader implications
   than just the effect on privacy.  Using multiple resolvers is a
   significant change from the assumed model where stub resolvers send
   all queries to a single resolver.

6.1.  Caching considerations

   Using a common cache for multiple resolvers introduces the
   possibility that a resolver could learn about queries that were
   originally directed to another resolvers by observing the absence of
   queries.  Though this can reduce caching performance, clients can
   address this by having a per-resolver cache and only using the cache
   for the selected resolver.

6.2.  Consistency considerations

   Making the same query to multiple resolvers can result in different
   answers.  For instance, DNS-based load balancing can lead to
   different answers being produced over time or for different query
   origins.  Or, different resolvers might have different policies with
   respect to blocking or filtering of queries that lead to clients
   receiving inconsistent answers.

   In the extreme, an application might encounter errors as a result of
   receiving incompatible answers, particularly if a server operator
   (incorrectly) assumes that different DNS queries for the same client
   always originate from the same source address.  This is most likely
   to occur if name-based selection is used, as queries could be related
   based on information that the client does not consider.








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6.3.  Resolver load distribution and failover

   Any selection of resolvers that is based on random inputs will need
   to account for available capacity on resolvers.  Otherwise, resolvers
   with less available query-processing capacity will receive too high a
   proportion of all queries.  Clients only need to be informed of
   relative available capacity in order to make an appropriate
   selection.  How relative capacities of resolvers are determined is
   not in scope for this document.

   The choice of different resolvers would also need to work well with
   whatever mechanisms exist for failover to alternate resolvers when
   one is not responsive.  The same is true of IPv4/IPv6 connectivity,
   the availability of communications to specific ports, etc.  And the
   dynamic situation should obviously not lead to extensive leakage to
   different resolvers, either.

6.4.  Query performance

   Distribution of queries between resolvers also means that clients are
   exposed to greater variations in performance [HBSHF19].  In contrast,
   using a single resolver, as would result from the client-based method
   in Section 4.1, promotes use of a persistent connection.

6.5.  Debugging

   The use of multiple resolvers may complicate debugging.

7.  Further work

   Should there be interest in the deployment of ideas laid out in this
   memo, further work is needed.  There would have to be ways to
   configure systems to use multiple resolvers, including for instance:

   o  Central configuration mechanisms to enable the use of multiple
      resolvers, perhaps through usual network configuration mechanisms
      or choices made by applications using resolver services directly.
      It may also be necessary to employ discovery mechanisms, such as,
      e.g., [I-D.schinazi-httpbis-doh-preference-hints] or
      [I-D.pauly-dprive-adaptive-dns-privacy] (but see Section 3)

   o  Mechanisms to allow both failover to working resolvers when a
      resolver is unreachable,

   o  Additional testing for potential operational issues discussed in
      Section 2 would be beneficial.





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   Finally, more work is needed to determine factors other than privacy
   that could motivate having queries routed to the same resolver.  The
   choice between different approaches is often a combination of several
   factors, and privacy is only one of those factors.

8.  References

8.1.  Normative References

   [DNS]      Mockapetris, P., "Domain names - implementation and
              specification", STD 13, RFC 1035, DOI 10.17487/RFC1035,
              November 1987, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc1035>.

   [DNSSEC]   Arends, R., Austein, R., Larson, M., Massey, D., and S.
              Rose, "DNS Security Introduction and Requirements",
              RFC 4033, DOI 10.17487/RFC4033, March 2005,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4033>.

   [DOH]      Hoffman, P. and P. McManus, "DNS Queries over HTTPS
              (DoH)", RFC 8484, DOI 10.17487/RFC8484, October 2018,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8484>.

   [DOT]      Hu, Z., Zhu, L., Heidemann, J., Mankin, A., Wessels, D.,
              and P. Hoffman, "Specification for DNS over Transport
              Layer Security (TLS)", RFC 7858, DOI 10.17487/RFC7858, May
              2016, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7858>.

   [PMON]     Farrell, S. and H. Tschofenig, "Pervasive Monitoring Is an
              Attack", BCP 188, RFC 7258, DOI 10.17487/RFC7258, May
              2014, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7258>.

8.2.  Informative References

   [DBOUND]   Levine, J., "Publishing Organization Boundaries in the
              DNS", draft-levine-dbound-dns-03 (work in progress), April
              2019.

   [HBSHF19]  Austin Hounsel, ., Kevin Borgolte, ., Paul Schmidt, .,
              Jordan Holland, ., and . Nick Feamster, "Analyzing the
              Costs (and Benefits) of DNS, DoT, andDoH for the Modern
              Web", ANRW '19, July 22, 2019, Montreal, QC, Canada ,
              n.d., <https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3340301.3341129>.

   [I-D.pauly-dprive-adaptive-dns-privacy]
              Kinnear, E., Pauly, T., Wood, C., and P. McManus,
              "Adaptive DNS: Improving Privacy of Name Resolution",
              draft-pauly-dprive-adaptive-dns-privacy-01 (work in
              progress), November 2019.



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   [I-D.schinazi-httpbis-doh-preference-hints]
              Schinazi, D., Sullivan, N., and J. Kipp, "DoH Preference
              Hints for HTTP", draft-schinazi-httpbis-doh-preference-
              hints-01 (work in progress), January 2020.

   [MSCVUS]   Wikipedia, ., "Microsoft Corp. v. United States",
              https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
              Microsoft_Corp._v._United_States , n.d..

8.3.  URIs

   [1] https://publicsuffix.org/

   [2] https://github.com/mozilla-services/shavar-prod-
       lists/blob/master/disconnect-entitylist.json

   [3] https://github.com/krgovind/first-party-sets

Appendix A.  Acknowledgements

   The authors would like to thank Christian Huitema, Ari Keraenen, Mark
   Nottingham, Stephen Farrell, Gonzalo Camarillo, Mirja Kuehlewind,
   David Allan, Daniel Migault, Goran AP Eriksson, Christopher Wood, and
   many others for interesting discussions in this problem space.

Authors' Addresses

   Jari Arkko
   Ericsson

   Email: jari.arkko@piuha.net


   Martin Thomson
   Mozilla

   Email: martin.thomson@gmail.com


   Ted Hardie
   Google

   Email: ted.ietf@gmail.com








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